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Hadza

2021-01-05T08:14:40Z

Kirk Miller: /* Phonology */

{{InfoboxLanguage
|Language = Hadza
|Autonym = ''Haza, hazane''
|Pronunciation = ɦad͜za
|Ethn15name = Hadza
|Countries = Tanzania
|OfficialLg = none
|OLACname = Hadza
|WALSLoc = 3°45′ S, 35°10′ E
|Speakers = 1,000
|Family = [[isolate]]
|Genus = Hadza
|WritingSyst = none
|ISO3 = hts
}}

Hadza is a language isolate of Tanzania.

=== Location and Speakers ===
Hadza is spoken along the entire eastern shore of alkaline Lake Eyasi, which lies at the base of the Serengeti Plateau in central Tanzania, from Mount Oldeani in the north (just south of Ngorongoro Crater) to the Isanzu agricultural areas in the south. The Hadza do not live at altitudes much above 1500 meters, as they do not build shelters that will ward off the night chill at higher elevations.

There is a small population of Hadza to the west of the lake, in ''Dunduhina'' /duƞtuhina/<ref>This article uses the old IPA letter for a moraic nasal, ⟨ƞ⟩, which was retired from the IPA alphabet because it had no specific phonetic value. In Hadza, the moraic nasal is homorganic with a following consonant.</ref> 'Sukumaland', but their number seems to be decreasing and many only speak Sukuma and Swahili.

There are approximately 1,000 speakers of Hadza, most now bilingual in Swahili. Other second languages include Bantu [[Isanzu]] in the south, Bantu [[Sukuma]] in the west, and to a lesser degree Nilotic [[Datooga]] in the center (e.g. near the Yaeda Valley to the southeast of the lake) and Cushitic [[Iraqw]] on the margins of the Iraqw highlands. The northern Hadza area, around the town of Mangola, was largely monolingual until the introduction of Standard Swahili after independence, though there are loanwords from colonial-era 'upcountry' Swahili.

As of 2005, about 40% of Hadza lived as full-time hunter-gatherers, and language transmission was robust in the areas east of the lake, but since then there have been reports of children speaking Swahili east of the lake, perhaps due to the influx of ''Dunduhinabee'' abandoning their territory in the west.

=== Classification ===
Hadza is a [[language isolate]]. Greenberg classified it as [[Khoisan]] due to its use of [[click consonant]]s. If it were not for the clicks, it's likely that Hadza would have been classified as [[Cushitic]]. Hadza and Sandawe have very similar phonetic inventories and phonotactics, suggesting an old sprachbund. However, the only detected commonalities in vocabulary are old Cushitic loans or perhaps loans that passed from one to the other through Cushitic. Much of the borrowed Cushitic vocabulary is consistent with reconstructions of proto-West Rift.

=== Dialects ===
There are no dialects of Hadza, presumably due to the mobility of its speakers. There are some regional differences of vocabulary, however, and speakers note that many more Bantu loans are used in the south. Some differences in pronunciation have been recorded from people from different areas, but it's not clear if these differences are regional accents or individual variation.

=== Name ===
"Hadza" is the most common name in the literature. ''Haza'' /ɦad͜za/ simply means 'human being'. The derivative "Hadzane" (/ɦad͜zane/ 'in the manner of the people') is sometimes encountered as the name of the language. The feminine plural ''hazabee'' /ɦad͜zabeʔe/ may be used for the people, though it is usually spelled "Hadzabe" due to devoicing of the final vowel. (The feminine is the inclusive gender in the plural.) "Hadzapi" is the masculine-plural copular form ''hazaphii'' /ɦad͜zapʰiʔi/. "Hatza" and "Hatsa" are older German spellings.

"Tindiga" is from the Swahili name, ''watindiga'' 'people of the marsh grass' and its derivative ''kitindiga'', presumably named for the large spring in Mangola. The forms ''wahadza'', ''kihadza'' are found instead of ''watindiga'', ''kitindiga'' in recent Swahili publications, but the Hadza do not consider ''watindiga'' to be pejorative. "Kindiga" may be a cognate from one of the local Bantu languages. "Kangeju" (pronounced ''Kangeyu'') is an obsolete German name of unclear origin. The name "Wahi" (pronounced ''Vahi'') found for the western Hadza in Kohl-Larsen is a Sukuma name for the Hadza.

=== Orthography ===
Hadza does not have a written tradition. Two orthographies have seen recent use: the phonetic transcription of Tucker, Bryan & Woodburn (1977), used with some modification by Woodburn and other anthropologists, and the practical orthography of Anyawire et al. (2013). As it is based on the IPA, the Woodburn transcription is more accessible to linguists, while the Anyawire orthography is closer to Sandawe and other written languages of Tanzania. There is evidently some political controversy over the choice of orthography, with Hadza reporting they have been told that if they use the Anyawire orthography they will loose their land. There are two motivations for the Anyawire orthography: the perception that the IPA click letters of the Woodburn transcription portray the Hadza language as bizarre, when the Hadza people already have difficulties with being marginalized and a perception that they are not proper human beings, and the practical issue that the ubiquitous apostrophe of the Woodburn transcription makes it impractical for extended use. The apostrophes are generally omitted by those Hadza who have learned the Woodburn system, with the resulting texts often being unintelligible even to their authors; when the apostrophes are written, they greatly slow down the pace of writing. In the Anyawire orthography, doubled consonants are used for glottalized/ejective consonants and doubled vowels for glottal stop, with the apostrophe only being used for the Swahili convention of ⟨ngʼ⟩ for borrowed /ŋ/.

The Anyawire orthography is used alongside the IPA in this article for accessibility with the Anyawire dictionary. For clarity, an apostrophe will be retained in this article for glottal stop between unlike vowels, e.g. ⟨ae⟩ /ae/ vs ⟨aʼe⟩ /aʔe/. In practice, the Hadza are more likely to write an epenthetic glide between vowels in hiatus, e.g. ⟨aye⟩ for /ae/ vs ⟨ae⟩ for /aʔe/.

=== Phonology ===
Hadza syllable structure is limited to CVN in native words. There are no vowel-initial roots, unless ''h'' is analyzed as an allophone of zero. It is possible that nasal codas are found primarily in loan words and ideophones. This N surfaces as a homorganic nasal when a following consonant has a place of articulation for it to assimilate to, and as nasalization of the vowel before a glottal consonant (glottal stop and ''h''/zero) and pre-pausa. Coda N also appears allophonically before voiced nasal and glottalized nasal clicks. A moraic (syllabic?) nasal is also found word-initially in loans from Bantu and Datooga (and in a few Cushitic loans, some due to metathesis and some unexplained), in which case it may have a different pitch than the following vowel, or may be preceded by an epenthetic vowel; such nasals are analyzed here as NCV sequences rather than as a series of prenasalized consonants. Phonetically, initial #NCV may also occur in shortened forms when the initial hV syllable of a #hVC₂V-shaped word is elided and C₂ is a glottalized nasal click.

==== Stress and tone ====
It is not yet clear whether Hadza has phonemic tone. If it does, it is likely to have a minimal system of the kind often called [[pitch accent]]. Salient stress and pitch are not restricted to a particular syllable; their position may vary between elicitations of at least some words pronounced in isolation, but in some words pitch appears to be fixed. Heavy syllables tend to attract stress but again the pattern is not absolute. There are no known minimal pairs, grammatical or lexical, for stress or pitch. Minimal pairs claimed in the literature have turned out to either not be distinct in pronunciation, or to not be minimal pairs (e.g., one of the words may have an additional morpheme such as the habitual suffix ''-e'', which frequently reduces to vowel length and attracts stress). It may be that some loanwords retain the tone of their source language.

==== Vowels ====
There are five phonemic vowels, which are close to cardinal [a e i o u].

{| class="wikitable" style=text-align:center
|+Hadza vowels
| style="background: white" |
! Front
! Central
! Back
|-
! High
| i || || u
|-
! Mid
| e || || o
|-
! Low
| || a ||
|}

Phonetic nasal vowels, which are not common except before a consonant, are here analyzed as /VN/.

Phonetic long vowels are often sequences, as in ''kaha'' [kaː] ~ [kaɦa] 'to climb'. In some words, however, there is no allomorph with [ɦ], as in ''bôko'' [boːko] 'she' (forms a minimal pair with ''boko'' [boko] 'to be ill') and ''sêta'' [seːta] 'moon'. There is no known minimal set to establish long /Vː/ as distinct from a /VV/ sequence.

The mid vowels /e, o/ tend to rise when a high vowel, /i, u/, occurs in the following syllable, and /e, o/ may merge with /i, u/ in that position. However, such assimilation tends to be optional, even in suffixed pronouns such as ''onebii'' [ʔone̝biʔi] ~ ''unibii'' [ʔunibiʔi] 'we' (masculine, inclusive).

/u/ is relatively uncommon except in loans or due to vowel-height assimilation. /u/ does not occur at all in grammatical morphemes unless the morpheme has a second syllable with vowel /i/, and so is presumably a historical *o in such cases.

Vowels tend to devoice in pre-pausa position after a voiceless consonant. In the highly frequent pattern of word-final -V₁ʔV₁ (where the two vowels are the same, a pattern found in half of all grammatical suffixes and clitics though not frequently elsewhere), the vowel and preceding glottal stop tend to elide completely when pre-pausa, and either elide or reduce to a long vowel before a suffix/clitic or another word.

==== Consonants ====
Hadza has at least 50 productive syllable onsets and several other marginal consonants.

{| class="wikitable" style=text-align:center
|+Principal Hadza consonants (Parentheses: loans. Dark background: may follow a nasal coda.)
! rowspan=2 colspan=2 |
! rowspan=2 | Labial
! rowspan=2 colspan=2 | (Denti-) alveolar
! rowspan=2 | (Post-) alveolar
! rowspan=2 | Palatal
! colspan=2 | Post-velar
! rowspan=2 | Glottal/ placeless
|- class=small
! plain
! labialized
|-
! rowspan=4 | Click
! Aspirated
|
| colspan=2 style="background: silver" |ᵏǀʰ
| style="background: silver" |ᵏǃʰ
| style="background: LightGray" |ᵏǁʰ
| colspan=3 rowspan=4 style="background: white" |
|-
! Tenuis
|
| colspan=2 style="background: silver" |ᵏǀ
| style="background: Gainsboro" |ᵏǃ
| style="background: Gainsboro" |ᵏǁ
|-
! Voiced nasal
|
| colspan=2 | ⁿǀ
| ⁿǃ
| ⁿǁ
|-
! Glottalized nasal
|
| colspan=2 | ⁿǀˀ
| ⁿǃˀ
| ⁿǁˀ
|-
! rowspan=5 | Plosive / affricate
|-
! Ejective
| pʼ
| colspan=2| t͜sʼ
| t͜ʃʼ
| c͜ʎ̥˔ʼ
| k͜xʼ
| k͜xʷʼ
| style="background: white" |
|-
! Aspirated
| style="background: silver" |pʰ
| style="background: silver" |tʰ
| style="background: silver" |t͜sʰ
| style="background: silver" |t͜ʃʰ
| c͜ʎ̥˔ʰ
| style="background: silver" |kʰ
| style="background: silver" |kʷʰ
|
|-
! Tenuis
| style="background: silver" |p
| style="background: silver" |t
| style="background: silver" |t͜s
| style="background: silver" |t͜ʃ
| c͜ʎ̥˔
| style="background: silver" |k
| style="background: silver" |kʷ
| style="background: silver" |ʔ
|-
! Voiced
| b
| (d)
| (d͜z)
| (d͜ʒ)
|
| (ɡ)
| (ɡʷ)
| style="background: white" |
|-
! colspan=2| Nasal
| m
| colspan=2| n
| colspan=2| (ɲ)
| (ŋ)
| (ŋʷ)
| //ƞ//
|-
! colspan=2 | Fricative
| (fʷ)
| ɬ
| s
| ʃ
|
|
|
|
|-
! colspan=2 | Sonorant
|
| colspan=2 | ɺ
|
| j
|
| w
| style="background: silver" | ɦ (zero?)
|}

Consonants in parentheses are thought to be loans, though the voiced obstruents at least are well-integrated and may be spreading to native roots.

Consonants with a medium grey background may follow a coda nasal in the preceding syllable (that is, they may be C₂ in a CVNCV pattern), whereas those on the lightest grey background may not. Alveolar /ǃ/ and lateral /ǁ/ (medium light grey) are not attested in this environment. However, it is suspected these gaps may be accidental, given that only two roots are known with dental /ǀ/ as C₂ after a nasal coda and that these sequences have not yet been investigated in the field. Moreover, the one known case of aspirated lateral /ƞǁʰ/, though its identity was clear when elicited, needs to be confirmed with additional speakers. A word with the same sequence reported in Tucker, Bryan & Woodburn could not be confirmed by Anyawire et al.

The voice-onset time of consonants is reduced after a nasal coda: [[tenuis]] consonants may be partially or completely voiced, and the aspiration of aspirated consonants may be reduced or lost. This is true of clicks as well as of plosives and affricates, and is reflected in both orthographies. There is only a two-way VOT distinction after a nasal coda. A /b/~/p/ distinction has not been found in post-nasal position despite /b/ being native.

Aspiration may only be distinct in the first several syllables of a word. Many speakers distinguish aspirated plosives in only a few words that contrast /k/ and /kʰ/, but maintain a robust aspiration distinction in affricates and clicks. The reason for this asymmetry is unknown.

The glottalized nasal clicks surface as [Ʞʔ] (where ⟨Ʞ⟩ stands for any click release) post-pausa and often as [ŋ͡nʔꞰ] intervocalically. Accounts differ as to whether there is voiceless nasal airflow preceding the click in post-pausa position.

Aspirated clicks may have a delayed and clearly audible posterior release, e.g. [Ʞʰ] ~ [Ʞkʰ]. The audible release has the same post-velar articulation as the ''k''-series of plosives.

The alveolar clicks sound rather palatal with some speakers, and tend to be weakly articulated, though, so far as is known, not slapped as they can be in Sandawe. (Reports of slapped [ǃ¡] clicks in Hadza by a UCLA team in the 1990s could not be confirmed with the UCLA archives, and it would appear that weak/flapped alveolar clicks were erroneously identified with slapped Sandawe clicks that the team had recorded a few weeks earlier.) When intervocalic, nasal alveolar /ⁿǃ/ may surface as, or nearly as, a doubly articulated pulmonic nasal [ŋ͡n]. The lateral clicks, on the other hand, are typically quite salient, and such phonetic reduction has not be noted. They appear to have the same post-alveolar to palatal place of articulation as the lateral affricates. The 'dental' (denti-alveolar) clicks are unremarkable, but are less common than the others.

Among the ejectives, /pʼ/ is uncommon and may be ideophonic. Most other ejectives vary between affricate and fricative realizations. Fricative allophens [sʼ, ʃʼ, xʼ, xʷʼ] have been noted for /t͜sʼ, t͜ʃʼ, k͜xʼ, k͜xʷʼ/. Velar /k͜xʼ/ and /k͜xʷʼ/ also have plosive allophones, [kʼ, kʷʼ], and /k͜xʼ/ has a lateral allophone [k͜ʟ̝̊ʼ]. Ejective /t͜sʼ/ may correspond phonologically to both the plosive and affricate (/t/ and /t͜s/) alveolar series of pulmonic consonants.

The palatal lateral affricates may be pronounced with an alveolar onset, e.g. [t͜ʎ̥˔], or without involving the front of the tongue, e.g. [c͜ʎ̥˔]. Speakers express no preference when hearing these articulations. The relatively uncommon fricative /ɬ/, however, is alveolar; a palatal articulation is not accepted. Given that the fricative may be pronounced as an affricate in some prosodic situations, this means that there is a three-way phonetic place contrast among laterals: [t͜ɬ] vs [t͜ʎ̥˔ ~ c͜ʎ̥˔] and [t͜ʎ̥˔ʼ ~ c͜ʎ̥˔ʼ] vs [k͜ʟ̝̊ʼ].

/ɺ/ is typically realized as [l] post-pausa and [ɾ] elsewhere, though [ɺ] is not uncommon in either position. It tends toward [l] when it occurs as both C₁ and C₂, as in /ɺoɺa/ (sp. rabbit).

[ɦ] and zero may be allophones. If so, and given that vowel-initial suffixes and clitics may elide a short stem-final vowel, it would be simplest to posit that the phoneme is zero and that [ɦ] is an allophone of zero, rather than that /ɦ/ is elided under some conditions. A predictive conditioning environment for the presence or absence of [ɦ] has not been discovered, but prosody may play a role; even vowel-initial suffixes and clitics may be realized with an initial [ɦ] when given contrastive prosody. Assimilation or bilingualism may be involved in the case of loanwords. For instance, an Isanzu loan for 'snake' was recorded as ''ihato'' /ʔiɦato/ at the beginning of the 20th century (and perhaps in an Isanzu-biligual area) but as ''iyato'' /ʔiato/ at the beginning of the 21st century in Mangola.

The glides /j/ and /w/ are not distinctive next to high front /i/ and back /u/, respectively, and rarely (or uncertainly) distinctive next to mid front /e/ and back /o/. It is possible that medial ''y'' and ''w'' are phonemically /i/ and /u/ and that initial ''y'' and ''w'' are /ʔi/ and /ʔu/. When they occur word-initially, purported /jV, wV/ often appear as [ʔi(j)V] and [ʔu(w)V]. This is true even of a ubiquitous sequential auxiliary (''yamo'' [jamo] ~ ''iamo'' [ʔiamo] in the 3msg posterior (past?) tense). [j] does occur in two object suffixes, and it is not clear if these can be explained away as /i/. In the anthropological and linguistic literature, glides ''y'' and ''w'' are often written between unlike vowels. For example, the 3msg non-past copula clitic ''-ha'' /ɦa/ is often transcribed as ''ya'' after a front vowel and as ''wa'' after a back vowel. (The copula sometimes contains a very clear [ɦ], and pre-pausa even [h] due to final devoicing, but often the /ɦ/ is realized as transitional murmur or possibly elided altogether.)

===== Marginal consonants =====

A labial click, variously reported as [ⁿʘʷ] or [ⁿʘˀ], is found in a single root, ''mcwa-'', that is mimetic for a kiss and often made with an accompanying kiss to the hand. ''Mcwa-'' may be allomorphic with ''ncuwa-'' /ⁿǀua/ 'kiss', with a dental click.

A trill [r] is used by some speakers in some words, such as ''karro'' /karo/ (hunting/sighting name for a female giraffe), perhaps reflecting the pronunciation of the word in the language it was borrowed from. It is replaced with /ɺ/ (''karo'' /kaɺo/) by other speakers.

An implosive [ɓ] is used by some speakers in some words, perhaps reflecting the pronunciation of the word in the source language, though in some instances it might co-occur with ejectives, which would be difficult to explain away as a loan (e.g. ''beggawuko'' /bekx’auko/ 'elephant', apparently [ɓekx’auko] in some recordings). It is replaced with /b/ by other speakers. Other implosives have not been noted.

A fricative [x] occurs lexicalized in an expletive, ''ahho'' [ʔaxo], where otherwise the root is ''akho'' /ʔakʰo/ 'genitals'. (/kʰ/ is commonly realized as [kx].)

Word-initial /mu/ and occasionally /mo/ are optionally realized as syllabic [m̩], for example in the common greeting ''mutana'' ~ ''mtana''. This is a Bantu alternation.

/v/ may occasionally be found in loans, as in mimetic ''vûvuko'' ~ ''fûfuko'' /vuːvuko ~ fuːfuko/ 'propeller toy', though it is normally replaced with /f/. [v] (or perhaps [β]) has been reported for /b/, for example in Bleek's transcriptions of the plural suffixes ''-bee'' and ''-bii'' as 've' and 'vi'.

===== Phonotactics =====
All clicks within a root must be the same, as in /ǀikiɺiƞǀa/ 'pinkie'. Although there is a tendency for click consonants and ejectives to occur as C₁, in a quarter of words with clicks the click occurs only as C₂, and in other words as both C₁ and C₂.

Clicks and ejectives may co-occur, though always in that order. When they co-occur, there appears to be some sibilant/lateral harmony, with a strong tendency for /t͜sʼ/ to occur after denti-alveolar clicks and for /c͜ʎ̥˔ʼ/ to occur after lateral clicks. (/k͜xʼ/ does not seem to be affected by the click, and is common after all places/types.)

When an aspirated consonant occurs more than once in a word, the first instance tends to deaspirate (as in [[Grassman's Law|Grassmann's]]/[[Katupha's Law]], though generally optional in Hadza). A coda N may block deaspiration, as in the allomorphs /peǃeǃʰe/ ~ /peƞǃʰeƞǃʰe/ 'to rush'. Repeated NC sequences may loose their nasal segment as well, as in /ƞtʰaɺaƞtʰaɺaʔabiʔi/ ~ /taɺaƞtʰaɺaʔabiʔi/ '(arrow) barbs'. It is not clear to what extent these patterns hold if the aspirated consonants are different rather than repeated phonemes.

===Swadesh lists===
Only roots are given below. For example, the word for 'name', given here as the root ''akhana'', is actually feminine plural ''akhanabee''.

====Wichmann & Holman basic 40-word list (ordered by stability)====

#louse ''ccamazzi'' /ⁿǀˀamat͜sʼi/<ref>cf. ''ccezze'' /ⁿǀˀet͜s’e/ 'tick'</ref>
#two ''piye'' /pie/, ''konxa'' /koⁿǁa/ (verb)
#water ''ati'' /ʔati/ (mpl; msg = 'rain, river')
#ear ''hajjapitchi'' /ɦat͜ʃ’apit͜ʃʰi/<ref>from ''hazzape'' /ɦat͜s’ape/ 'leaf'?</ref>
#to die ''taxxi'' /taⁿǁˀi/, ''misi'' /misi/ (Datooga?)
#I *one /ʔone/, */-ko/<ref>If *-ko-a > /-kʷa/ rather than *-kʷa-ʔV > /-koʔo/.</ref>
#liver ''xxe'' /ⁿǁˀe/
#eye ''akhwa'' /ʔakʷʰa/
#hand, arm ''ukhwa'' /ʔukʷʰa/
#hear ''nxaʼe'' /ⁿǁaʔe/
#tree ''zziti'' /t͜s’iti/
#fish ''ccama'' /ⁿǀˀama/, ''ccara'' /ⁿǀˀaɺa/
#name ''akhana'' /ʔakʰana/
#stone ''haqqa'' /ɦaⁿǃˀa/
#tooth ''aha'' /ʔaɦa/
#breast ''iriba'' /ʔiɺiba/ ('breasts, milk'. Cushitic); ''ggazza'' /k͜x’at͜s’a/ ('flesh at sternum')
#thou ''the'' /tʰe/, /-en-/ (m), /-n-/ (f)
#path ''yeke'' /jeke/
#bone ''midla'' /mic͜ʎ̥˔’a/ (cf. Dahalo)
#tongue ''ncata'' /ⁿǀata/
#skin ''ahu'' /ʔaɦu/
#night ''zzifi'' /t͜s’ifi/ (m; f = 'day')
#leaf ''hazzape'' /ɦat͜s’ape/
#rain = 'water' (msg = 'rain, river'; mpl = 'water')
#kill ''xô'' /ǁoː/
#blood ''athama'' /ʔatʰama/
#horn ''roo'' /ɺoʔo/
#person ''haza'' /ɦad͜za/ (human), ''unu'' /ʔunu/ (person)
#knee ''guringuri'' /ɡuɺiƞɡuɺi/ ~ ''gurunguri'' /ɡuɺuƞɡuɺi/ (Cushitic? pan-African)
#one ''itchâme'' /ʔit͜ʃʰaːme/
#nose ''intawe'' /ʔiƞtʰawe/
#full ''ggaʼe'' /k͜x’aʔe/, *cco- /ⁿǀˀo-/
#come ''za'' /d͜za/ (Bantu), ''botco'' /bot͜ʃo/ (stem of imperative)
#star ''ntsa'' /ƞt͜sʰa/, ''sa'' /sa/ (Cushitic?)<ref>Anyawire et al. (2013) only found ''ntsa''. Tucker et al. (1977) report ''sa'' 'star', and Woodburn confirms the form he knows does not have a nasal onset. /ƞ/ + /sa/ would generate /ƞt͜sʰa/. Indeed, speakers do not care if the latter is written ''ntsa'' or ''nsa''. There are several Cushitic loanwords that have an onset that varies as C ~ NC in Hadza where the source language is only reconstructed with C.</ref>
#mountain ''xxudle'' /ⁿǁˀuc͜ʎ̥˔’e/
#fire ''zzoko'' /t͜s’oko/
#we (exclusive) ''ô'' /ʔoː/, /-j-/
#to drink ''fa'' /fʷa/
#to see ''chî'' /ǀʰiː/ ~ ''cî'' /ǀiː/
#bark ''heggwa'' /ɦek͜xʷ’a/
#new ''zana'' /d͜zana/<ref>from ''za'' 'come'?</ref>
#dog ''xhaano'' /ǁʰaʔano/, ''tîngi'' /tiːƞki/
#sun ''isho'' /ʔiʃo/

===Notes===
<references/>

===Bibliography===

* Mariamu Anyawire, G.G. Bala, Kirk Miller (ed.) & Bonny Sands (2013). ''A Hadza Lexicon'' (ms).
* Roger Blench (2008). [https://web.archive.org/web/20110721180216/http://www.rogerblench.info/Language%20data/Khoesan/Blench%20paper%20Riezlern%202008.pdf Hadza Animal Names.] Paper presented at the 3rd International Symposium on Khoisan Languages and Linguistics, Riezlern, 7–9 July 2008.
* Niklas Edenmyr (2004). [https://web.archive.org/web/20070706040409/http://www.african.gu.se/aa/pdfs/aa04003.pdf The semantics of Hadza gender assignment: a few notes from the field.] ''Africa & Asia'', no. 4, Department of Oriental and African languages, Göteborg University, 3–19.
* Edward Elderkin (1978). Loans in Hadza: internal evidence from consonants. ''Occasional Papers'' 3, Dar es Salaam.
* Peter Ladefoged, Ian Maddieson & Bonny Sands (1991). [http://archive.phonetics.ucla.edu/Language/HTS/hts.html Hadza wordlist and sound files]. UCLA Phonetics Lab Archive.
* ———— (1993). [https://www.academia.edu/17743030/The_phonetic_structures_of_Hadza The Phonetic Structures of Hadza.] In [http://repositories.cdlib.org/uclaling/wpp/No84/ ''UCLA Working Papers in Phonetics'' No. 84: ''Fieldwork Studies in Targeted Languages'',] 67–87.
* Kirk Miller (2008). [https://www.academia.edu/36533859/Hadza_grammar_notes Hadza Grammar Notes.] Paper presented at the 3rd International Symposium on Khoisan Languages and Linguistics, Riezlern, 7–9 July 2008.
* ———— (2009). [https://www.academia.edu/36533860/Highlights_of_Hadza_Fieldwork Highlights of Hadza fieldwork.] Paper presented at the 83rd Annual Meeting of the Linguistic Society of America, San Francisco, 8–11 January 2009.
* ———— (2016). Hadza Kinship Terms. In Shah & Brenzinger, eds., ''Khoisan Languages and Linguistics: Proceedings of the 5th International Symposium, July 13–17, 2014, Riezlern/Kleinwalsertal.'' Cologne: Rüdiger Köppe, 277–333.
* Bonny Sands (1998). The Linguistic Relationship between Hadza and Khoisan. In Schladt, Matthias (ed.) ''Language, Identity, and Conceptualization among the Khoisan'' (Quellen zur Khoisan-Forschung Vol. 15), Cologne: Rüdiger Köppe, 265–283.
* ———— (2013). Phonetics and phonology: Hadza; Tonology: Hadza; Morphology: Hadza; Syntax: Hadza. In Rainer Vossen, ed., ''The Khoesan Languages''. Oxford: Routledge.
*Sergei Starostin. [http://starling.rinet.ru/cgi-bin/response.cgi?root=new100&morpho=0&basename=new100\hdz\hdz&limit=-1 Hadza basic lexicon.] Global Lexicostatistical Database. [much of the parsing is speculation, and Bleek's posthumous data is unreliable]
* A.N. Tucker, M.A. Bryan & James Woodburn as co-author for Hadza (1977). The East African Click Languages: A Phonetic Comparison. In J.G. Moehlig, Franz Rottland, Bernd Heine, eds, ''Zur Sprachgeschichte und Ethnohistorie in Afrika.'' Berlin: Dietrich Diener.

[[Category:En]]
[[Category:Single language]]

Hadza

2021-01-05T04:11:13Z

Kirk Miller: /* Name */

{{InfoboxLanguage
|Language = Hadza
|Autonym = ''Haza, hazane''
|Pronunciation = ɦad͜za
|Ethn15name = Hadza
|Countries = Tanzania
|OfficialLg = none
|OLACname = Hadza
|WALSLoc = 3°45′ S, 35°10′ E
|Speakers = 1,000
|Family = [[isolate]]
|Genus = Hadza
|WritingSyst = none
|ISO3 = hts
}}

Hadza is a language isolate of Tanzania.

=== Location and Speakers ===
Hadza is spoken along the entire eastern shore of alkaline Lake Eyasi, which lies at the base of the Serengeti Plateau in central Tanzania, from Mount Oldeani in the north (just south of Ngorongoro Crater) to the Isanzu agricultural areas in the south. The Hadza do not live at altitudes much above 1500 meters, as they do not build shelters that will ward off the night chill at higher elevations.

There is a small population of Hadza to the west of the lake, in ''Dunduhina'' /duƞtuhina/<ref>This article uses the old IPA letter for a moraic nasal, ⟨ƞ⟩, which was retired from the IPA alphabet because it had no specific phonetic value. In Hadza, the moraic nasal is homorganic with a following consonant.</ref> 'Sukumaland', but their number seems to be decreasing and many only speak Sukuma and Swahili.

There are approximately 1,000 speakers of Hadza, most now bilingual in Swahili. Other second languages include Bantu [[Isanzu]] in the south, Bantu [[Sukuma]] in the west, and to a lesser degree Nilotic [[Datooga]] in the center (e.g. near the Yaeda Valley to the southeast of the lake) and Cushitic [[Iraqw]] on the margins of the Iraqw highlands. The northern Hadza area, around the town of Mangola, was largely monolingual until the introduction of Standard Swahili after independence, though there are loanwords from colonial-era 'upcountry' Swahili.

As of 2005, about 40% of Hadza lived as full-time hunter-gatherers, and language transmission was robust in the areas east of the lake, but since then there have been reports of children speaking Swahili east of the lake, perhaps due to the influx of ''Dunduhinabee'' abandoning their territory in the west.

=== Classification ===
Hadza is a [[language isolate]]. Greenberg classified it as [[Khoisan]] due to its use of [[click consonant]]s. If it were not for the clicks, it's likely that Hadza would have been classified as [[Cushitic]]. Hadza and Sandawe have very similar phonetic inventories and phonotactics, suggesting an old sprachbund. However, the only detected commonalities in vocabulary are old Cushitic loans or perhaps loans that passed from one to the other through Cushitic. Much of the borrowed Cushitic vocabulary is consistent with reconstructions of proto-West Rift.

=== Dialects ===
There are no dialects of Hadza, presumably due to the mobility of its speakers. There are some regional differences of vocabulary, however, and speakers note that many more Bantu loans are used in the south. Some differences in pronunciation have been recorded from people from different areas, but it's not clear if these differences are regional accents or individual variation.

=== Name ===
"Hadza" is the most common name in the literature. ''Haza'' /ɦad͜za/ simply means 'human being'. The derivative "Hadzane" (/ɦad͜zane/ 'in the manner of the people') is sometimes encountered as the name of the language. The feminine plural ''hazabee'' /ɦad͜zabeʔe/ may be used for the people, though it is usually spelled "Hadzabe" due to devoicing of the final vowel. (The feminine is the inclusive gender in the plural.) "Hadzapi" is the masculine-plural copular form ''hazaphii'' /ɦad͜zapʰiʔi/. "Hatza" and "Hatsa" are older German spellings.

"Tindiga" is from the Swahili name, ''watindiga'' 'people of the marsh grass' and its derivative ''kitindiga'', presumably named for the large spring in Mangola. The forms ''wahadza'', ''kihadza'' are found instead of ''watindiga'', ''kitindiga'' in recent Swahili publications, but the Hadza do not consider ''watindiga'' to be pejorative. "Kindiga" may be a cognate from one of the local Bantu languages. "Kangeju" (pronounced ''Kangeyu'') is an obsolete German name of unclear origin. The name "Wahi" (pronounced ''Vahi'') found for the western Hadza in Kohl-Larsen is a Sukuma name for the Hadza.

=== Orthography ===
Hadza does not have a written tradition. Two orthographies have seen recent use: the phonetic transcription of Tucker, Bryan & Woodburn (1977), used with some modification by Woodburn and other anthropologists, and the practical orthography of Anyawire et al. (2013). As it is based on the IPA, the Woodburn transcription is more accessible to linguists, while the Anyawire orthography is closer to Sandawe and other written languages of Tanzania. There is evidently some political controversy over the choice of orthography, with Hadza reporting they have been told that if they use the Anyawire orthography they will loose their land. There are two motivations for the Anyawire orthography: the perception that the IPA click letters of the Woodburn transcription portray the Hadza language as bizarre, when the Hadza people already have difficulties with being marginalized and a perception that they are not proper human beings, and the practical issue that the ubiquitous apostrophe of the Woodburn transcription makes it impractical for extended use. The apostrophes are generally omitted by those Hadza who have learned the Woodburn system, with the resulting texts often being unintelligible even to their authors; when the apostrophes are written, they greatly slow down the pace of writing. In the Anyawire orthography, doubled consonants are used for glottalized/ejective consonants and doubled vowels for glottal stop, with the apostrophe only being used for the Swahili convention of ⟨ngʼ⟩ for borrowed /ŋ/.

The Anyawire orthography is used alongside the IPA in this article for accessibility with the Anyawire dictionary. For clarity, an apostrophe will be retained in this article for glottal stop between unlike vowels, e.g. ⟨ae⟩ /ae/ vs ⟨aʼe⟩ /aʔe/. In practice, the Hadza are more likely to write an epenthetic glide between vowels in hiatus, e.g. ⟨aye⟩ for /ae/ vs ⟨ae⟩ for /aʔe/.

=== Phonology ===
Hadza syllable structure is limited to CVN in native words. There are no vowel-initial roots, unless ''h'' is analyzed as an allophone of zero. It is possible that nasal codas are found primarily in loan words and ideophones. This N surfaces as a homorganic nasal when a following consonant has a place of articulation for it to assimilate to, and as nasalization of the vowel before a glottal consonant (glottal stop and ''h''/zero) and pre-pausa. Coda N also appears allophonically before voiced nasal and glottalized nasal clicks. A moraic (syllabic?) nasal is also found word-initially in loans from Bantu and Datooga (and, due to metathesis, in a few Cushitic loans), in which case it may have a different pitch than the following vowel, or may be preceded by an epenthetic vowel; such nasals are analyzed here as NCV sequences rather than as a series of prenasalized consonants. Phonetically, initial #NCV may also occur in shortened forms when the initial hV syllable of a #hVC₂V-shaped word is elided and C₂ is a glottalized nasal click.

==== Stress and tone ====
It is not yet clear whether Hadza has phonemic tone. If it does, it is likely to have a minimal system of the kind often called [[pitch accent]]. Salient stress and pitch are not restricted to a particular syllable; their position may vary between elicitations of at least some words pronounced in isolation, but in some words pitch appears to be fixed. Heavy syllables tend to attract stress but again the pattern is not absolute. There are no known minimal pairs, grammatical or lexical, for stress or pitch. Minimal pairs claimed in the literature have turned out to either not be distinct in pronunciation, or to not be minimal pairs (e.g., one of the words may have an additional morpheme such as the habitual suffix ''-e'', which frequently reduces to vowel length and attracts stress). It may be that some loanwords retain the tone of their source language.

==== Vowels ====
There are five phonemic vowels, which are close to cardinal [a e i o u].

{| class="wikitable" style=text-align:center
|+Hadza vowels
| style="background: white" |
! Front
! Central
! Back
|-
! High
| i || || u
|-
! Mid
| e || || o
|-
! Low
| || a ||
|}

Phonetic nasal vowels, which are not common except before a consonant, are here analyzed as /VN/.

Phonetic long vowels are often sequences, as in ''kaha'' [kaː] ~ [kaɦa] 'to climb'. In some words, however, there is no allomorph with [ɦ], as in ''bôko'' [boːko] 'she' (forms a minimal pair with ''boko'' [boko] 'to be ill') and ''sêta'' [seːta] 'moon'. There is no known minimal set to establish long /Vː/ as distinct from a /VV/ sequence.

The mid vowels /e, o/ tend to rise when a high vowel, /i, u/, occurs in the following syllable, and /e, o/ may merge with /i, u/ in that position. However, such assimilation tends to be optional, even in suffixed pronouns such as ''onebii'' [ʔone̝biʔi] ~ ''unibii'' [ʔunibiʔi] 'we' (masculine, inclusive).

/u/ is relatively uncommon except in loans or due to vowel-height assimilation. /u/ does not occur at all in grammatical morphemes unless the morpheme has a second syllable with vowel /i/, and so is presumably a historical *o in such cases.

Vowels tend to devoice in pre-pausa position after a voiceless consonant. In the highly frequent pattern of word-final -V₁ʔV₁ (where the two vowels are the same, a pattern found in half of all grammatical suffixes and clitics though not frequently elsewhere), the vowel and preceding glottal stop tend to elide completely when pre-pausa, and either elide or reduce to a long vowel before a suffix/clitic or another word.

==== Consonants ====
Hadza has at least 50 productive syllable onsets and several other marginal consonants.

{| class="wikitable" style=text-align:center
|+Principal Hadza consonants (Parentheses: loans. Dark background: may follow a nasal coda.)
! rowspan=2 colspan=2 |
! rowspan=2 | Labial
! rowspan=2 colspan=2 | (Denti-) alveolar
! rowspan=2 | (Post-) alveolar
! rowspan=2 | Palatal
! colspan=2 | Post-velar
! rowspan=2 | Glottal/ placeless
|- class=small
! plain
! labialized
|-
! rowspan=4 | Click
! Aspirated
|
| colspan=2 style="background: silver" |ᵏǀʰ
| style="background: silver" |ᵏǃʰ
| style="background: LightGray" |ᵏǁʰ
| colspan=3 rowspan=4 style="background: white" |
|-
! Tenuis
|
| colspan=2 style="background: silver" |ᵏǀ
| style="background: Gainsboro" |ᵏǃ
| style="background: Gainsboro" |ᵏǁ
|-
! Voiced nasal
|
| colspan=2 | ⁿǀ
| ⁿǃ
| ⁿǁ
|-
! Glottalized nasal
|
| colspan=2 | ⁿǀˀ
| ⁿǃˀ
| ⁿǁˀ
|-
! rowspan=5 | Plosive / affricate
|-
! Ejective
| pʼ
| colspan=2| t͜sʼ
| t͜ʃʼ
| c͜ʎ̥˔ʼ
| k͜xʼ
| k͜xʷʼ
| style="background: white" |
|-
! Aspirated
| style="background: silver" |pʰ
| style="background: silver" |tʰ
| style="background: silver" |t͜sʰ
| style="background: silver" |t͜ʃʰ
| c͜ʎ̥˔ʰ
| style="background: silver" |kʰ
| style="background: silver" |kʷʰ
|
|-
! Tenuis
| style="background: silver" |p
| style="background: silver" |t
| style="background: silver" |t͜s
| style="background: silver" |t͜ʃ
| c͜ʎ̥˔
| style="background: silver" |k
| style="background: silver" |kʷ
| style="background: silver" |ʔ
|-
! Voiced
| b
| (d)
| (d͜z)
| (d͜ʒ)
|
| (ɡ)
| (ɡʷ)
| style="background: white" |
|-
! colspan=2| Nasal
| m
| colspan=2| n
| colspan=2| (ɲ)
| (ŋ)
| (ŋʷ)
| //ƞ//
|-
! colspan=2 | Fricative
| (fʷ)
| ɬ
| s
| ʃ
|
|
|
|
|-
! colspan=2 | Sonorant
|
| colspan=2 | ɺ
|
| j
|
| w
| style="background: silver" | ɦ (zero?)
|}

Consonants in parentheses are thought to be loans, though the voiced obstruents at least are well-integrated and may be spreading to native roots.

Consonants with a medium grey background may follow a coda nasal in the preceding syllable (that is, they may be C₂ in a CVNCV pattern), whereas those on the lightest grey background may not. Alveolar /ǃ/ and lateral /ǁ/ (medium light grey) are not attested in this environment. However, it is suspected these gaps may be accidental, given that only two roots are known with dental /ǀ/ as C₂ after a nasal coda and that these sequences have not yet been investigated in the field. Moreover, the one known case of aspirated lateral /ƞǁʰ/, though its identity was clear when elicited, needs to be confirmed with additional speakers. A word with the same sequence reported in Tucker, Bryan & Woodburn could not be confirmed by Anyawire et al.

The voice-onset time of consonants is reduced after a nasal coda: [[tenuis]] consonants may be partially or completely voiced, and the aspiration of aspirated consonants may be reduced or lost. This is true of clicks as well as of plosives and affricates, and is reflected in both orthographies. There is only a two-way VOT distinction after a nasal coda. A /b/~/p/ distinction has not been found in post-nasal position despite /b/ being native.

Aspiration may only be distinct in the first several syllables of a word. Many speakers distinguish aspirated plosives in only a few words that contrast /k/ and /kʰ/, but maintain a robust aspiration distinction in affricates and clicks. The reason for this asymmetry is unknown.

The glottalized nasal clicks surface as [Ʞʔ] (where ⟨Ʞ⟩ stands for any click release) post-pausa and often as [ŋ͡nʔꞰ] intervocalically. Accounts differ as to whether there is voiceless nasal airflow preceding the click in post-pausa position.

Aspirated clicks may have a delayed and clearly audible posterior release, e.g. [Ʞʰ] ~ [Ʞkʰ]. The audible release has the same post-velar articulation as the ''k''-series of plosives.

The alveolar clicks sound rather palatal with some speakers, and tend to be weakly articulated, though, so far as is known, not slapped as they can be in Sandawe. (Reports of slapped [ǃ¡] clicks in Hadza by a UCLA team in the 1990s could not be confirmed with the UCLA archives, and it would appear that weak/flapped alveolar clicks were erroneously identified with slapped Sandawe clicks that the team had recorded a few weeks earlier.) When intervocalic, nasal alveolar /ⁿǃ/ may surface as, or nearly as, a doubly articulated pulmonic nasal [ŋ͡n]. The lateral clicks, on the other hand, are typically quite salient, and such phonetic reduction has not be noted. They appear to have the same post-alveolar to palatal place of articulation as the lateral affricates. The 'dental' (denti-alveolar) clicks are unremarkable, but are less common than the others.

Among the ejectives, /pʼ/ is uncommon and may be ideophonic. Most other ejectives vary between affricate and fricative realizations. Fricative allophens [sʼ, ʃʼ, xʼ, xʷʼ] have been noted for /t͜sʼ, t͜ʃʼ, k͜xʼ, k͜xʷʼ/. Velar /k͜xʼ/ and /k͜xʷʼ/ also have plosive allophones, [kʼ, kʷʼ], and /k͜xʼ/ has a lateral allophone [k͜ʟ̝̊ʼ]. Ejective /t͜sʼ/ may correspond phonologically to both the plosive and affricate (/t/ and /t͜s/) alveolar series of pulmonic consonants.

The palatal lateral affricates may be pronounced with an alveolar onset, e.g. [t͜ʎ̥˔], or without involving the front of the tongue, e.g. [c͜ʎ̥˔]. Speakers express no preference when hearing these articulations. The relatively uncommon fricative /ɬ/, however, is alveolar; a palatal articulation is not accepted. Given that the fricative may be pronounced as an affricate in some prosodic situations, this means that there is a three-way phonetic place contrast among laterals: [t͜ɬ] vs [t͜ʎ̥˔ ~ c͜ʎ̥˔] and [t͜ʎ̥˔ʼ ~ c͜ʎ̥˔ʼ] vs [k͜ʟ̝̊ʼ].

/ɺ/ is typically realized as [l] post-pausa and [ɾ] elsewhere, though [ɺ] is not uncommon in either position. It tends toward [l] when it occurs as both C₁ and C₂, as in /ɺoɺa/ (sp. rabbit).

[ɦ] and zero may be allophones. If so, and given that vowel-initial suffixes and clitics may elide a short stem-final vowel, it would be simplest to posit that the phoneme is zero and that [ɦ] is an allophone of zero, rather than that /ɦ/ is elided under some conditions. A predictive conditioning environment for the presence or absence of [ɦ] has not been discovered, but prosody may play a role; even vowel-initial suffixes and clitics may be realized with an initial [ɦ] when given contrastive prosody. Assimilation or bilingualism may be involved in the case of loanwords. For instance, an Isanzu loan for 'snake' was recorded as ''ihato'' /ʔiɦato/ at the beginning of the 20th century (and perhaps in an Isanzu-biligual area) but as ''iyato'' /ʔiato/ at the beginning of the 21st century in Mangola.

The glides /j/ and /w/ are not distinctive next to high front /i/ and back /u/, respectively, and rarely (or uncertainly) distinctive next to mid front /e/ and back /o/. It is possible that medial ''y'' and ''w'' are phonemically /i/ and /u/ and that initial ''y'' and ''w'' are /ʔi/ and /ʔu/. When they occur word-initially, purported /jV, wV/ often appear as [ʔi(j)V] and [ʔu(w)V]. This is true even of a ubiquitous sequential auxiliary (''yamo'' [jamo] ~ ''iamo'' [ʔiamo] in the 3msg posterior (past?) tense). [j] does occur in two object suffixes, and it is not clear if these can be explained away as /i/. In the anthropological and linguistic literature, glides ''y'' and ''w'' are often written between unlike vowels. For example, the 3msg non-past copula clitic ''-ha'' /ɦa/ is often transcribed as ''ya'' after a front vowel and as ''wa'' after a back vowel. (The copula sometimes contains a very clear [ɦ], and pre-pausa even [h] due to final devoicing, but often the /ɦ/ is realized as transitional murmur or possibly elided altogether.)

===== Marginal consonants =====

A labial click, variously reported as [ⁿʘʷ] or [ⁿʘˀ], is found in a single root, ''mcwa-'', that is mimetic for a kiss and often made with an accompanying kiss to the hand. ''Mcwa-'' may be allomorphic with ''ncuwa-'' /ⁿǀua/ 'kiss', with a dental click.

A trill [r] is used by some speakers in some words, such as ''karro'' /karo/ (hunting/sighting name for a female giraffe), perhaps reflecting the pronunciation of the word in the language it was borrowed from. It is replaced with /ɺ/ (''karo'' /kaɺo/) by other speakers.

An implosive [ɓ] is used by some speakers in some words, perhaps reflecting the pronunciation of the word in the source language, though in some instances it might co-occur with ejectives, which would be difficult to explain away as a loan (e.g. ''beggawuko'' /bekx’auko/ 'elephant', apparently [ɓekx’auko] in some recordings). It is replaced with /b/ by other speakers. Other implosives have not been noted.

A fricative [x] occurs lexicalized in an expletive, ''ahho'' [ʔaxo], where otherwise the root is ''akho'' /ʔakʰo/ 'genitals'. (/kʰ/ is commonly realized as [kx].)

Word-initial /mu/ and occasionally /mo/ are optionally realized as syllabic [m̩], for example in the common greeting ''mutana'' ~ ''mtana''. This is a Bantu alternation.

/v/ may occasionally be found in loans, as in mimetic ''vûvuko'' ~ ''fûfuko'' /vuːvuko ~ fuːfuko/ 'propeller toy', though it is normally replaced with /f/. [v] (or perhaps [β]) has been reported for /b/, for example in Bleek's transcriptions of the plural suffixes ''-bee'' and ''-bii'' as 've' and 'vi'.

===== Phonotactics =====
All clicks within a root must be the same, as in /ǀikiɺiƞǀa/ 'pinkie'. Although there is a tendency for click consonants and ejectives to occur as C₁, in a quarter of words with clicks the click occurs only as C₂, and in other words as both C₁ and C₂.

Clicks and ejectives may co-occur, though always in that order. When they co-occur, there appears to be some sibilant/lateral harmony, with a strong tendency for /t͜sʼ/ to occur after denti-alveolar clicks and for /c͜ʎ̥˔ʼ/ to occur after lateral clicks. (/k͜xʼ/ does not seem to be affected by the click, and is common after all places/types.)

When an aspirated consonant occurs more than once in a word, the first instance tends to deaspirate (as in [[Grassman's Law|Grassmann's]]/[[Katupha's Law]], though generally optional in Hadza). A coda N may block deaspiration, as in the allomorphs /peǃeǃʰe/ ~ /peƞǃʰeƞǃʰe/ 'to rush'. Repeated NC sequences may loose their nasal segment as well, as in /ƞtʰaɺaƞtʰaɺaʔabiʔi/ ~ /taɺaƞtʰaɺaʔabiʔi/ '(arrow) barbs'. It is not clear to what extent these patterns hold if the aspirated consonants are different rather than repeated phonemes.

===Swadesh lists===
Only roots are given below. For example, the word for 'name', given here as the root ''akhana'', is actually feminine plural ''akhanabee''.

====Wichmann & Holman basic 40-word list (ordered by stability)====

#louse ''ccamazzi'' /ⁿǀˀamat͜sʼi/<ref>cf. ''ccezze'' /ⁿǀˀet͜s’e/ 'tick'</ref>
#two ''piye'' /pie/, ''konxa'' /koⁿǁa/ (verb)
#water ''ati'' /ʔati/ (mpl; msg = 'rain, river')
#ear ''hajjapitchi'' /ɦat͜ʃ’apit͜ʃʰi/<ref>from ''hazzape'' /ɦat͜s’ape/ 'leaf'?</ref>
#to die ''taxxi'' /taⁿǁˀi/, ''misi'' /misi/ (Datooga?)
#I *one /ʔone/, */-ko/<ref>If *-ko-a > /-kʷa/ rather than *-kʷa-ʔV > /-koʔo/.</ref>
#liver ''xxe'' /ⁿǁˀe/
#eye ''akhwa'' /ʔakʷʰa/
#hand, arm ''ukhwa'' /ʔukʷʰa/
#hear ''nxaʼe'' /ⁿǁaʔe/
#tree ''zziti'' /t͜s’iti/
#fish ''ccama'' /ⁿǀˀama/, ''ccara'' /ⁿǀˀaɺa/
#name ''akhana'' /ʔakʰana/
#stone ''haqqa'' /ɦaⁿǃˀa/
#tooth ''aha'' /ʔaɦa/
#breast ''iriba'' /ʔiɺiba/ ('breasts, milk'. Cushitic); ''ggazza'' /k͜x’at͜s’a/ ('flesh at sternum')
#thou ''the'' /tʰe/, /-en-/ (m), /-n-/ (f)
#path ''yeke'' /jeke/
#bone ''midla'' /mic͜ʎ̥˔’a/ (cf. Dahalo)
#tongue ''ncata'' /ⁿǀata/
#skin ''ahu'' /ʔaɦu/
#night ''zzifi'' /t͜s’ifi/ (m; f = 'day')
#leaf ''hazzape'' /ɦat͜s’ape/
#rain = 'water' (msg = 'rain, river'; mpl = 'water')
#kill ''xô'' /ǁoː/
#blood ''athama'' /ʔatʰama/
#horn ''roo'' /ɺoʔo/
#person ''haza'' /ɦad͜za/ (human), ''unu'' /ʔunu/ (person)
#knee ''guringuri'' /ɡuɺiƞɡuɺi/ ~ ''gurunguri'' /ɡuɺuƞɡuɺi/ (Cushitic? pan-African)
#one ''itchâme'' /ʔit͜ʃʰaːme/
#nose ''intawe'' /ʔiƞtʰawe/
#full ''ggaʼe'' /k͜x’aʔe/, *cco- /ⁿǀˀo-/
#come ''za'' /d͜za/ (Bantu), ''botco'' /bot͜ʃo/ (stem of imperative)
#star ''ntsa'' /ƞt͜sʰa/, ''sa'' /sa/ (Cushitic?)<ref>Anyawire et al. (2013) only found ''ntsa''. Tucker et al. (1977) report ''sa'' 'star', and Woodburn confirms the form he knows does not have a nasal onset. /ƞ/ + /sa/ would generate /ƞt͜sʰa/. Indeed, speakers do not care if the latter is written ''ntsa'' or ''nsa''. There are several Cushitic loanwords that have an onset that varies as C ~ NC in Hadza where the source language is only reconstructed with C.</ref>
#mountain ''xxudle'' /ⁿǁˀuc͜ʎ̥˔’e/
#fire ''zzoko'' /t͜s’oko/
#we (exclusive) ''ô'' /ʔoː/, /-j-/
#to drink ''fa'' /fʷa/
#to see ''chî'' /ǀʰiː/ ~ ''cî'' /ǀiː/
#bark ''heggwa'' /ɦek͜xʷ’a/
#new ''zana'' /d͜zana/<ref>from ''za'' 'come'?</ref>
#dog ''xhaano'' /ǁʰaʔano/, ''tîngi'' /tiːƞki/
#sun ''isho'' /ʔiʃo/

===Notes===
<references/>

===Bibliography===

* Mariamu Anyawire, G.G. Bala, Kirk Miller (ed.) & Bonny Sands (2013). ''A Hadza Lexicon'' (ms).
* Roger Blench (2008). [https://web.archive.org/web/20110721180216/http://www.rogerblench.info/Language%20data/Khoesan/Blench%20paper%20Riezlern%202008.pdf Hadza Animal Names.] Paper presented at the 3rd International Symposium on Khoisan Languages and Linguistics, Riezlern, 7–9 July 2008.
* Niklas Edenmyr (2004). [https://web.archive.org/web/20070706040409/http://www.african.gu.se/aa/pdfs/aa04003.pdf The semantics of Hadza gender assignment: a few notes from the field.] ''Africa & Asia'', no. 4, Department of Oriental and African languages, Göteborg University, 3–19.
* Edward Elderkin (1978). Loans in Hadza: internal evidence from consonants. ''Occasional Papers'' 3, Dar es Salaam.
* Peter Ladefoged, Ian Maddieson & Bonny Sands (1991). [http://archive.phonetics.ucla.edu/Language/HTS/hts.html Hadza wordlist and sound files]. UCLA Phonetics Lab Archive.
* ———— (1993). [https://www.academia.edu/17743030/The_phonetic_structures_of_Hadza The Phonetic Structures of Hadza.] In [http://repositories.cdlib.org/uclaling/wpp/No84/ ''UCLA Working Papers in Phonetics'' No. 84: ''Fieldwork Studies in Targeted Languages'',] 67–87.
* Kirk Miller (2008). [https://www.academia.edu/36533859/Hadza_grammar_notes Hadza Grammar Notes.] Paper presented at the 3rd International Symposium on Khoisan Languages and Linguistics, Riezlern, 7–9 July 2008.
* ———— (2009). [https://www.academia.edu/36533860/Highlights_of_Hadza_Fieldwork Highlights of Hadza fieldwork.] Paper presented at the 83rd Annual Meeting of the Linguistic Society of America, San Francisco, 8–11 January 2009.
* ———— (2016). Hadza Kinship Terms. In Shah & Brenzinger, eds., ''Khoisan Languages and Linguistics: Proceedings of the 5th International Symposium, July 13–17, 2014, Riezlern/Kleinwalsertal.'' Cologne: Rüdiger Köppe, 277–333.
* Bonny Sands (1998). The Linguistic Relationship between Hadza and Khoisan. In Schladt, Matthias (ed.) ''Language, Identity, and Conceptualization among the Khoisan'' (Quellen zur Khoisan-Forschung Vol. 15), Cologne: Rüdiger Köppe, 265–283.
* ———— (2013). Phonetics and phonology: Hadza; Tonology: Hadza; Morphology: Hadza; Syntax: Hadza. In Rainer Vossen, ed., ''The Khoesan Languages''. Oxford: Routledge.
*Sergei Starostin. [http://starling.rinet.ru/cgi-bin/response.cgi?root=new100&morpho=0&basename=new100\hdz\hdz&limit=-1 Hadza basic lexicon.] Global Lexicostatistical Database. [much of the parsing is speculation, and Bleek's posthumous data is unreliable]
* A.N. Tucker, M.A. Bryan & James Woodburn as co-author for Hadza (1977). The East African Click Languages: A Phonetic Comparison. In J.G. Moehlig, Franz Rottland, Bernd Heine, eds, ''Zur Sprachgeschichte und Ethnohistorie in Afrika.'' Berlin: Dietrich Diener.

[[Category:En]]
[[Category:Single language]]

Hadza

2021-01-05T04:07:37Z

Kirk Miller: /* Location and Speakers */

{{InfoboxLanguage
|Language = Hadza
|Autonym = ''Haza, hazane''
|Pronunciation = ɦad͜za
|Ethn15name = Hadza
|Countries = Tanzania
|OfficialLg = none
|OLACname = Hadza
|WALSLoc = 3°45′ S, 35°10′ E
|Speakers = 1,000
|Family = [[isolate]]
|Genus = Hadza
|WritingSyst = none
|ISO3 = hts
}}

Hadza is a language isolate of Tanzania.

=== Location and Speakers ===
Hadza is spoken along the entire eastern shore of alkaline Lake Eyasi, which lies at the base of the Serengeti Plateau in central Tanzania, from Mount Oldeani in the north (just south of Ngorongoro Crater) to the Isanzu agricultural areas in the south. The Hadza do not live at altitudes much above 1500 meters, as they do not build shelters that will ward off the night chill at higher elevations.

There is a small population of Hadza to the west of the lake, in ''Dunduhina'' /duƞtuhina/<ref>This article uses the old IPA letter for a moraic nasal, ⟨ƞ⟩, which was retired from the IPA alphabet because it had no specific phonetic value. In Hadza, the moraic nasal is homorganic with a following consonant.</ref> 'Sukumaland', but their number seems to be decreasing and many only speak Sukuma and Swahili.

There are approximately 1,000 speakers of Hadza, most now bilingual in Swahili. Other second languages include Bantu [[Isanzu]] in the south, Bantu [[Sukuma]] in the west, and to a lesser degree Nilotic [[Datooga]] in the center (e.g. near the Yaeda Valley to the southeast of the lake) and Cushitic [[Iraqw]] on the margins of the Iraqw highlands. The northern Hadza area, around the town of Mangola, was largely monolingual until the introduction of Standard Swahili after independence, though there are loanwords from colonial-era 'upcountry' Swahili.

As of 2005, about 40% of Hadza lived as full-time hunter-gatherers, and language transmission was robust in the areas east of the lake, but since then there have been reports of children speaking Swahili east of the lake, perhaps due to the influx of ''Dunduhinabee'' abandoning their territory in the west.

=== Classification ===
Hadza is a [[language isolate]]. Greenberg classified it as [[Khoisan]] due to its use of [[click consonant]]s. If it were not for the clicks, it's likely that Hadza would have been classified as [[Cushitic]]. Hadza and Sandawe have very similar phonetic inventories and phonotactics, suggesting an old sprachbund. However, the only detected commonalities in vocabulary are old Cushitic loans or perhaps loans that passed from one to the other through Cushitic. Much of the borrowed Cushitic vocabulary is consistent with reconstructions of proto-West Rift.

=== Dialects ===
There are no dialects of Hadza, presumably due to the mobility of its speakers. There are some regional differences of vocabulary, however, and speakers note that many more Bantu loans are used in the south. Some differences in pronunciation have been recorded from people from different areas, but it's not clear if these differences are regional accents or individual variation.

=== Name ===
"Hadza" is the most common name in the literature. ''Haza'' /ɦad͜za/ simply means 'human being'. The derivative "Hadzane" (/ɦad͜zane/ 'in the manner of the people') is sometimes encountered as the name of the language. The feminine plural ''hazabee'' /ɦad͜zabeʔe/ may be used for the people, though it is usually spelled "Hadzabe" due to devoicing of the final vowel. (The feminine is the inclusive gender in the plural.) "Hadzapi" is the masculine-plural copular form ''hazaphii'' /ɦad͜zapʰiʔi/. "Hatza" and "Hatsa" are older German spellings.

"Tindiga" is from the Swahili name, ''watindiga'' 'people of the marsh grass', presumably named for the large spring in Mangola. The forms ''wahadza'', ''kihadza'' are found instead of ''watindiga'', ''kitindiga'' in recent Swahili publications, but the Hadza do not consider ''watindiga'' to be pejorative. "Kindiga" may be a cognate from one of the local Bantu languages. "Kangeju" (pronounced ''Kangeyu'') is an obsolete German name of unclear origin. The name "Wahi" (pronounced ''Vahi'') found for the western Hadza in Kohl-Larsen is a Sukuma name for the Hadza.

=== Orthography ===
Hadza does not have a written tradition. Two orthographies have seen recent use: the phonetic transcription of Tucker, Bryan & Woodburn (1977), used with some modification by Woodburn and other anthropologists, and the practical orthography of Anyawire et al. (2013). As it is based on the IPA, the Woodburn transcription is more accessible to linguists, while the Anyawire orthography is closer to Sandawe and other written languages of Tanzania. There is evidently some political controversy over the choice of orthography, with Hadza reporting they have been told that if they use the Anyawire orthography they will loose their land. There are two motivations for the Anyawire orthography: the perception that the IPA click letters of the Woodburn transcription portray the Hadza language as bizarre, when the Hadza people already have difficulties with being marginalized and a perception that they are not proper human beings, and the practical issue that the ubiquitous apostrophe of the Woodburn transcription makes it impractical for extended use. The apostrophes are generally omitted by those Hadza who have learned the Woodburn system, with the resulting texts often being unintelligible even to their authors; when the apostrophes are written, they greatly slow down the pace of writing. In the Anyawire orthography, doubled consonants are used for glottalized/ejective consonants and doubled vowels for glottal stop, with the apostrophe only being used for the Swahili convention of ⟨ngʼ⟩ for borrowed /ŋ/.

The Anyawire orthography is used alongside the IPA in this article for accessibility with the Anyawire dictionary. For clarity, an apostrophe will be retained in this article for glottal stop between unlike vowels, e.g. ⟨ae⟩ /ae/ vs ⟨aʼe⟩ /aʔe/. In practice, the Hadza are more likely to write an epenthetic glide between vowels in hiatus, e.g. ⟨aye⟩ for /ae/ vs ⟨ae⟩ for /aʔe/.

=== Phonology ===
Hadza syllable structure is limited to CVN in native words. There are no vowel-initial roots, unless ''h'' is analyzed as an allophone of zero. It is possible that nasal codas are found primarily in loan words and ideophones. This N surfaces as a homorganic nasal when a following consonant has a place of articulation for it to assimilate to, and as nasalization of the vowel before a glottal consonant (glottal stop and ''h''/zero) and pre-pausa. Coda N also appears allophonically before voiced nasal and glottalized nasal clicks. A moraic (syllabic?) nasal is also found word-initially in loans from Bantu and Datooga (and, due to metathesis, in a few Cushitic loans), in which case it may have a different pitch than the following vowel, or may be preceded by an epenthetic vowel; such nasals are analyzed here as NCV sequences rather than as a series of prenasalized consonants. Phonetically, initial #NCV may also occur in shortened forms when the initial hV syllable of a #hVC₂V-shaped word is elided and C₂ is a glottalized nasal click.

==== Stress and tone ====
It is not yet clear whether Hadza has phonemic tone. If it does, it is likely to have a minimal system of the kind often called [[pitch accent]]. Salient stress and pitch are not restricted to a particular syllable; their position may vary between elicitations of at least some words pronounced in isolation, but in some words pitch appears to be fixed. Heavy syllables tend to attract stress but again the pattern is not absolute. There are no known minimal pairs, grammatical or lexical, for stress or pitch. Minimal pairs claimed in the literature have turned out to either not be distinct in pronunciation, or to not be minimal pairs (e.g., one of the words may have an additional morpheme such as the habitual suffix ''-e'', which frequently reduces to vowel length and attracts stress). It may be that some loanwords retain the tone of their source language.

==== Vowels ====
There are five phonemic vowels, which are close to cardinal [a e i o u].

{| class="wikitable" style=text-align:center
|+Hadza vowels
| style="background: white" |
! Front
! Central
! Back
|-
! High
| i || || u
|-
! Mid
| e || || o
|-
! Low
| || a ||
|}

Phonetic nasal vowels, which are not common except before a consonant, are here analyzed as /VN/.

Phonetic long vowels are often sequences, as in ''kaha'' [kaː] ~ [kaɦa] 'to climb'. In some words, however, there is no allomorph with [ɦ], as in ''bôko'' [boːko] 'she' (forms a minimal pair with ''boko'' [boko] 'to be ill') and ''sêta'' [seːta] 'moon'. There is no known minimal set to establish long /Vː/ as distinct from a /VV/ sequence.

The mid vowels /e, o/ tend to rise when a high vowel, /i, u/, occurs in the following syllable, and /e, o/ may merge with /i, u/ in that position. However, such assimilation tends to be optional, even in suffixed pronouns such as ''onebii'' [ʔone̝biʔi] ~ ''unibii'' [ʔunibiʔi] 'we' (masculine, inclusive).

/u/ is relatively uncommon except in loans or due to vowel-height assimilation. /u/ does not occur at all in grammatical morphemes unless the morpheme has a second syllable with vowel /i/, and so is presumably a historical *o in such cases.

Vowels tend to devoice in pre-pausa position after a voiceless consonant. In the highly frequent pattern of word-final -V₁ʔV₁ (where the two vowels are the same, a pattern found in half of all grammatical suffixes and clitics though not frequently elsewhere), the vowel and preceding glottal stop tend to elide completely when pre-pausa, and either elide or reduce to a long vowel before a suffix/clitic or another word.

==== Consonants ====
Hadza has at least 50 productive syllable onsets and several other marginal consonants.

{| class="wikitable" style=text-align:center
|+Principal Hadza consonants (Parentheses: loans. Dark background: may follow a nasal coda.)
! rowspan=2 colspan=2 |
! rowspan=2 | Labial
! rowspan=2 colspan=2 | (Denti-) alveolar
! rowspan=2 | (Post-) alveolar
! rowspan=2 | Palatal
! colspan=2 | Post-velar
! rowspan=2 | Glottal/ placeless
|- class=small
! plain
! labialized
|-
! rowspan=4 | Click
! Aspirated
|
| colspan=2 style="background: silver" |ᵏǀʰ
| style="background: silver" |ᵏǃʰ
| style="background: LightGray" |ᵏǁʰ
| colspan=3 rowspan=4 style="background: white" |
|-
! Tenuis
|
| colspan=2 style="background: silver" |ᵏǀ
| style="background: Gainsboro" |ᵏǃ
| style="background: Gainsboro" |ᵏǁ
|-
! Voiced nasal
|
| colspan=2 | ⁿǀ
| ⁿǃ
| ⁿǁ
|-
! Glottalized nasal
|
| colspan=2 | ⁿǀˀ
| ⁿǃˀ
| ⁿǁˀ
|-
! rowspan=5 | Plosive / affricate
|-
! Ejective
| pʼ
| colspan=2| t͜sʼ
| t͜ʃʼ
| c͜ʎ̥˔ʼ
| k͜xʼ
| k͜xʷʼ
| style="background: white" |
|-
! Aspirated
| style="background: silver" |pʰ
| style="background: silver" |tʰ
| style="background: silver" |t͜sʰ
| style="background: silver" |t͜ʃʰ
| c͜ʎ̥˔ʰ
| style="background: silver" |kʰ
| style="background: silver" |kʷʰ
|
|-
! Tenuis
| style="background: silver" |p
| style="background: silver" |t
| style="background: silver" |t͜s
| style="background: silver" |t͜ʃ
| c͜ʎ̥˔
| style="background: silver" |k
| style="background: silver" |kʷ
| style="background: silver" |ʔ
|-
! Voiced
| b
| (d)
| (d͜z)
| (d͜ʒ)
|
| (ɡ)
| (ɡʷ)
| style="background: white" |
|-
! colspan=2| Nasal
| m
| colspan=2| n
| colspan=2| (ɲ)
| (ŋ)
| (ŋʷ)
| //ƞ//
|-
! colspan=2 | Fricative
| (fʷ)
| ɬ
| s
| ʃ
|
|
|
|
|-
! colspan=2 | Sonorant
|
| colspan=2 | ɺ
|
| j
|
| w
| style="background: silver" | ɦ (zero?)
|}

Consonants in parentheses are thought to be loans, though the voiced obstruents at least are well-integrated and may be spreading to native roots.

Consonants with a medium grey background may follow a coda nasal in the preceding syllable (that is, they may be C₂ in a CVNCV pattern), whereas those on the lightest grey background may not. Alveolar /ǃ/ and lateral /ǁ/ (medium light grey) are not attested in this environment. However, it is suspected these gaps may be accidental, given that only two roots are known with dental /ǀ/ as C₂ after a nasal coda and that these sequences have not yet been investigated in the field. Moreover, the one known case of aspirated lateral /ƞǁʰ/, though its identity was clear when elicited, needs to be confirmed with additional speakers. A word with the same sequence reported in Tucker, Bryan & Woodburn could not be confirmed by Anyawire et al.

The voice-onset time of consonants is reduced after a nasal coda: [[tenuis]] consonants may be partially or completely voiced, and the aspiration of aspirated consonants may be reduced or lost. This is true of clicks as well as of plosives and affricates, and is reflected in both orthographies. There is only a two-way VOT distinction after a nasal coda. A /b/~/p/ distinction has not been found in post-nasal position despite /b/ being native.

Aspiration may only be distinct in the first several syllables of a word. Many speakers distinguish aspirated plosives in only a few words that contrast /k/ and /kʰ/, but maintain a robust aspiration distinction in affricates and clicks. The reason for this asymmetry is unknown.

The glottalized nasal clicks surface as [Ʞʔ] (where ⟨Ʞ⟩ stands for any click release) post-pausa and often as [ŋ͡nʔꞰ] intervocalically. Accounts differ as to whether there is voiceless nasal airflow preceding the click in post-pausa position.

Aspirated clicks may have a delayed and clearly audible posterior release, e.g. [Ʞʰ] ~ [Ʞkʰ]. The audible release has the same post-velar articulation as the ''k''-series of plosives.

The alveolar clicks sound rather palatal with some speakers, and tend to be weakly articulated, though, so far as is known, not slapped as they can be in Sandawe. (Reports of slapped [ǃ¡] clicks in Hadza by a UCLA team in the 1990s could not be confirmed with the UCLA archives, and it would appear that weak/flapped alveolar clicks were erroneously identified with slapped Sandawe clicks that the team had recorded a few weeks earlier.) When intervocalic, nasal alveolar /ⁿǃ/ may surface as, or nearly as, a doubly articulated pulmonic nasal [ŋ͡n]. The lateral clicks, on the other hand, are typically quite salient, and such phonetic reduction has not be noted. They appear to have the same post-alveolar to palatal place of articulation as the lateral affricates. The 'dental' (denti-alveolar) clicks are unremarkable, but are less common than the others.

Among the ejectives, /pʼ/ is uncommon and may be ideophonic. Most other ejectives vary between affricate and fricative realizations. Fricative allophens [sʼ, ʃʼ, xʼ, xʷʼ] have been noted for /t͜sʼ, t͜ʃʼ, k͜xʼ, k͜xʷʼ/. Velar /k͜xʼ/ and /k͜xʷʼ/ also have plosive allophones, [kʼ, kʷʼ], and /k͜xʼ/ has a lateral allophone [k͜ʟ̝̊ʼ]. Ejective /t͜sʼ/ may correspond phonologically to both the plosive and affricate (/t/ and /t͜s/) alveolar series of pulmonic consonants.

The palatal lateral affricates may be pronounced with an alveolar onset, e.g. [t͜ʎ̥˔], or without involving the front of the tongue, e.g. [c͜ʎ̥˔]. Speakers express no preference when hearing these articulations. The relatively uncommon fricative /ɬ/, however, is alveolar; a palatal articulation is not accepted. Given that the fricative may be pronounced as an affricate in some prosodic situations, this means that there is a three-way phonetic place contrast among laterals: [t͜ɬ] vs [t͜ʎ̥˔ ~ c͜ʎ̥˔] and [t͜ʎ̥˔ʼ ~ c͜ʎ̥˔ʼ] vs [k͜ʟ̝̊ʼ].

/ɺ/ is typically realized as [l] post-pausa and [ɾ] elsewhere, though [ɺ] is not uncommon in either position. It tends toward [l] when it occurs as both C₁ and C₂, as in /ɺoɺa/ (sp. rabbit).

[ɦ] and zero may be allophones. If so, and given that vowel-initial suffixes and clitics may elide a short stem-final vowel, it would be simplest to posit that the phoneme is zero and that [ɦ] is an allophone of zero, rather than that /ɦ/ is elided under some conditions. A predictive conditioning environment for the presence or absence of [ɦ] has not been discovered, but prosody may play a role; even vowel-initial suffixes and clitics may be realized with an initial [ɦ] when given contrastive prosody. Assimilation or bilingualism may be involved in the case of loanwords. For instance, an Isanzu loan for 'snake' was recorded as ''ihato'' /ʔiɦato/ at the beginning of the 20th century (and perhaps in an Isanzu-biligual area) but as ''iyato'' /ʔiato/ at the beginning of the 21st century in Mangola.

The glides /j/ and /w/ are not distinctive next to high front /i/ and back /u/, respectively, and rarely (or uncertainly) distinctive next to mid front /e/ and back /o/. It is possible that medial ''y'' and ''w'' are phonemically /i/ and /u/ and that initial ''y'' and ''w'' are /ʔi/ and /ʔu/. When they occur word-initially, purported /jV, wV/ often appear as [ʔi(j)V] and [ʔu(w)V]. This is true even of a ubiquitous sequential auxiliary (''yamo'' [jamo] ~ ''iamo'' [ʔiamo] in the 3msg posterior (past?) tense). [j] does occur in two object suffixes, and it is not clear if these can be explained away as /i/. In the anthropological and linguistic literature, glides ''y'' and ''w'' are often written between unlike vowels. For example, the 3msg non-past copula clitic ''-ha'' /ɦa/ is often transcribed as ''ya'' after a front vowel and as ''wa'' after a back vowel. (The copula sometimes contains a very clear [ɦ], and pre-pausa even [h] due to final devoicing, but often the /ɦ/ is realized as transitional murmur or possibly elided altogether.)

===== Marginal consonants =====

A labial click, variously reported as [ⁿʘʷ] or [ⁿʘˀ], is found in a single root, ''mcwa-'', that is mimetic for a kiss and often made with an accompanying kiss to the hand. ''Mcwa-'' may be allomorphic with ''ncuwa-'' /ⁿǀua/ 'kiss', with a dental click.

A trill [r] is used by some speakers in some words, such as ''karro'' /karo/ (hunting/sighting name for a female giraffe), perhaps reflecting the pronunciation of the word in the language it was borrowed from. It is replaced with /ɺ/ (''karo'' /kaɺo/) by other speakers.

An implosive [ɓ] is used by some speakers in some words, perhaps reflecting the pronunciation of the word in the source language, though in some instances it might co-occur with ejectives, which would be difficult to explain away as a loan (e.g. ''beggawuko'' /bekx’auko/ 'elephant', apparently [ɓekx’auko] in some recordings). It is replaced with /b/ by other speakers. Other implosives have not been noted.

A fricative [x] occurs lexicalized in an expletive, ''ahho'' [ʔaxo], where otherwise the root is ''akho'' /ʔakʰo/ 'genitals'. (/kʰ/ is commonly realized as [kx].)

Word-initial /mu/ and occasionally /mo/ are optionally realized as syllabic [m̩], for example in the common greeting ''mutana'' ~ ''mtana''. This is a Bantu alternation.

/v/ may occasionally be found in loans, as in mimetic ''vûvuko'' ~ ''fûfuko'' /vuːvuko ~ fuːfuko/ 'propeller toy', though it is normally replaced with /f/. [v] (or perhaps [β]) has been reported for /b/, for example in Bleek's transcriptions of the plural suffixes ''-bee'' and ''-bii'' as 've' and 'vi'.

===== Phonotactics =====
All clicks within a root must be the same, as in /ǀikiɺiƞǀa/ 'pinkie'. Although there is a tendency for click consonants and ejectives to occur as C₁, in a quarter of words with clicks the click occurs only as C₂, and in other words as both C₁ and C₂.

Clicks and ejectives may co-occur, though always in that order. When they co-occur, there appears to be some sibilant/lateral harmony, with a strong tendency for /t͜sʼ/ to occur after denti-alveolar clicks and for /c͜ʎ̥˔ʼ/ to occur after lateral clicks. (/k͜xʼ/ does not seem to be affected by the click, and is common after all places/types.)

When an aspirated consonant occurs more than once in a word, the first instance tends to deaspirate (as in [[Grassman's Law|Grassmann's]]/[[Katupha's Law]], though generally optional in Hadza). A coda N may block deaspiration, as in the allomorphs /peǃeǃʰe/ ~ /peƞǃʰeƞǃʰe/ 'to rush'. Repeated NC sequences may loose their nasal segment as well, as in /ƞtʰaɺaƞtʰaɺaʔabiʔi/ ~ /taɺaƞtʰaɺaʔabiʔi/ '(arrow) barbs'. It is not clear to what extent these patterns hold if the aspirated consonants are different rather than repeated phonemes.

===Swadesh lists===
Only roots are given below. For example, the word for 'name', given here as the root ''akhana'', is actually feminine plural ''akhanabee''.

====Wichmann & Holman basic 40-word list (ordered by stability)====

#louse ''ccamazzi'' /ⁿǀˀamat͜sʼi/<ref>cf. ''ccezze'' /ⁿǀˀet͜s’e/ 'tick'</ref>
#two ''piye'' /pie/, ''konxa'' /koⁿǁa/ (verb)
#water ''ati'' /ʔati/ (mpl; msg = 'rain, river')
#ear ''hajjapitchi'' /ɦat͜ʃ’apit͜ʃʰi/<ref>from ''hazzape'' /ɦat͜s’ape/ 'leaf'?</ref>
#to die ''taxxi'' /taⁿǁˀi/, ''misi'' /misi/ (Datooga?)
#I *one /ʔone/, */-ko/<ref>If *-ko-a > /-kʷa/ rather than *-kʷa-ʔV > /-koʔo/.</ref>
#liver ''xxe'' /ⁿǁˀe/
#eye ''akhwa'' /ʔakʷʰa/
#hand, arm ''ukhwa'' /ʔukʷʰa/
#hear ''nxaʼe'' /ⁿǁaʔe/
#tree ''zziti'' /t͜s’iti/
#fish ''ccama'' /ⁿǀˀama/, ''ccara'' /ⁿǀˀaɺa/
#name ''akhana'' /ʔakʰana/
#stone ''haqqa'' /ɦaⁿǃˀa/
#tooth ''aha'' /ʔaɦa/
#breast ''iriba'' /ʔiɺiba/ ('breasts, milk'. Cushitic); ''ggazza'' /k͜x’at͜s’a/ ('flesh at sternum')
#thou ''the'' /tʰe/, /-en-/ (m), /-n-/ (f)
#path ''yeke'' /jeke/
#bone ''midla'' /mic͜ʎ̥˔’a/ (cf. Dahalo)
#tongue ''ncata'' /ⁿǀata/
#skin ''ahu'' /ʔaɦu/
#night ''zzifi'' /t͜s’ifi/ (m; f = 'day')
#leaf ''hazzape'' /ɦat͜s’ape/
#rain = 'water' (msg = 'rain, river'; mpl = 'water')
#kill ''xô'' /ǁoː/
#blood ''athama'' /ʔatʰama/
#horn ''roo'' /ɺoʔo/
#person ''haza'' /ɦad͜za/ (human), ''unu'' /ʔunu/ (person)
#knee ''guringuri'' /ɡuɺiƞɡuɺi/ ~ ''gurunguri'' /ɡuɺuƞɡuɺi/ (Cushitic? pan-African)
#one ''itchâme'' /ʔit͜ʃʰaːme/
#nose ''intawe'' /ʔiƞtʰawe/
#full ''ggaʼe'' /k͜x’aʔe/, *cco- /ⁿǀˀo-/
#come ''za'' /d͜za/ (Bantu), ''botco'' /bot͜ʃo/ (stem of imperative)
#star ''ntsa'' /ƞt͜sʰa/, ''sa'' /sa/ (Cushitic?)<ref>Anyawire et al. (2013) only found ''ntsa''. Tucker et al. (1977) report ''sa'' 'star', and Woodburn confirms the form he knows does not have a nasal onset. /ƞ/ + /sa/ would generate /ƞt͜sʰa/. Indeed, speakers do not care if the latter is written ''ntsa'' or ''nsa''. There are several Cushitic loanwords that have an onset that varies as C ~ NC in Hadza where the source language is only reconstructed with C.</ref>
#mountain ''xxudle'' /ⁿǁˀuc͜ʎ̥˔’e/
#fire ''zzoko'' /t͜s’oko/
#we (exclusive) ''ô'' /ʔoː/, /-j-/
#to drink ''fa'' /fʷa/
#to see ''chî'' /ǀʰiː/ ~ ''cî'' /ǀiː/
#bark ''heggwa'' /ɦek͜xʷ’a/
#new ''zana'' /d͜zana/<ref>from ''za'' 'come'?</ref>
#dog ''xhaano'' /ǁʰaʔano/, ''tîngi'' /tiːƞki/
#sun ''isho'' /ʔiʃo/

===Notes===
<references/>

===Bibliography===

* Mariamu Anyawire, G.G. Bala, Kirk Miller (ed.) & Bonny Sands (2013). ''A Hadza Lexicon'' (ms).
* Roger Blench (2008). [https://web.archive.org/web/20110721180216/http://www.rogerblench.info/Language%20data/Khoesan/Blench%20paper%20Riezlern%202008.pdf Hadza Animal Names.] Paper presented at the 3rd International Symposium on Khoisan Languages and Linguistics, Riezlern, 7–9 July 2008.
* Niklas Edenmyr (2004). [https://web.archive.org/web/20070706040409/http://www.african.gu.se/aa/pdfs/aa04003.pdf The semantics of Hadza gender assignment: a few notes from the field.] ''Africa & Asia'', no. 4, Department of Oriental and African languages, Göteborg University, 3–19.
* Edward Elderkin (1978). Loans in Hadza: internal evidence from consonants. ''Occasional Papers'' 3, Dar es Salaam.
* Peter Ladefoged, Ian Maddieson & Bonny Sands (1991). [http://archive.phonetics.ucla.edu/Language/HTS/hts.html Hadza wordlist and sound files]. UCLA Phonetics Lab Archive.
* ———— (1993). [https://www.academia.edu/17743030/The_phonetic_structures_of_Hadza The Phonetic Structures of Hadza.] In [http://repositories.cdlib.org/uclaling/wpp/No84/ ''UCLA Working Papers in Phonetics'' No. 84: ''Fieldwork Studies in Targeted Languages'',] 67–87.
* Kirk Miller (2008). [https://www.academia.edu/36533859/Hadza_grammar_notes Hadza Grammar Notes.] Paper presented at the 3rd International Symposium on Khoisan Languages and Linguistics, Riezlern, 7–9 July 2008.
* ———— (2009). [https://www.academia.edu/36533860/Highlights_of_Hadza_Fieldwork Highlights of Hadza fieldwork.] Paper presented at the 83rd Annual Meeting of the Linguistic Society of America, San Francisco, 8–11 January 2009.
* ———— (2016). Hadza Kinship Terms. In Shah & Brenzinger, eds., ''Khoisan Languages and Linguistics: Proceedings of the 5th International Symposium, July 13–17, 2014, Riezlern/Kleinwalsertal.'' Cologne: Rüdiger Köppe, 277–333.
* Bonny Sands (1998). The Linguistic Relationship between Hadza and Khoisan. In Schladt, Matthias (ed.) ''Language, Identity, and Conceptualization among the Khoisan'' (Quellen zur Khoisan-Forschung Vol. 15), Cologne: Rüdiger Köppe, 265–283.
* ———— (2013). Phonetics and phonology: Hadza; Tonology: Hadza; Morphology: Hadza; Syntax: Hadza. In Rainer Vossen, ed., ''The Khoesan Languages''. Oxford: Routledge.
*Sergei Starostin. [http://starling.rinet.ru/cgi-bin/response.cgi?root=new100&morpho=0&basename=new100\hdz\hdz&limit=-1 Hadza basic lexicon.] Global Lexicostatistical Database. [much of the parsing is speculation, and Bleek's posthumous data is unreliable]
* A.N. Tucker, M.A. Bryan & James Woodburn as co-author for Hadza (1977). The East African Click Languages: A Phonetic Comparison. In J.G. Moehlig, Franz Rottland, Bernd Heine, eds, ''Zur Sprachgeschichte und Ethnohistorie in Afrika.'' Berlin: Dietrich Diener.

[[Category:En]]
[[Category:Single language]]

Family

2021-01-05T03:57:56Z

Kirk Miller: /* Comments */

A '''family''' of languages (a '''language family''') is a group of languages that developed from a common historical [[ancestor]].

A language '''isolate''' is a family of one, such as [[Basque]] or [[Sumerian]].

===Comments===
Some linguists have tried to establish separate terms for families with greater and shallower time-depth, or of different subdivisions within a family. Here are some of them:
*[[stock]], [[super-stock]]
*[[phylum]]
*[[genus]]

None of these are as universally accepted and used as the word 'family'; a branch of a family may also be called a family (such as the [[Germanic languages|Germanic family]] within the [[Indo-European languages|Indo-European family]]).

===Origin of the term===
This term was apparently adopted by linguists from biology, where a group of similar plants had been called family since the mid-18th century, if not earlier. The term is deeply entrenched in linguistics since at least the mid-19th century.

===See also===
*[[Daughter Language]]
*[[Genealogical Classification]]
*[[Sister Language]]

===Other languages===
German [[Sprachfamilie]]

{{dc}}
[[Category:Genealogy]]

Isolate

2021-01-05T03:55:19Z

Kirk Miller: Redirected page to Family

#REDIRECT [[Family]]

Family

2021-01-05T03:54:53Z

Kirk Miller:

A '''family''' of languages (a '''language family''') is a group of languages that developed from a common historical [[ancestor]].

A language '''isolate''' is a family of one, such as [[Basque]] or [[Sumerian]].

===Comments===
Some linguists have tried to establish separate terms for larger and smaller groups of languages, or for groups with greater and shallower time-depth. None of these are as universally accepted and used as family. Here are some of them:
*[[stock]], [[super-stock]]
*[[phylum]]
*[[genus]]

===Origin of the term===
This term was apparently adopted by linguists from biology, where a group of similar plants had been called family since the mid-18th century, if not earlier. The term is deeply entrenched in linguistics since at least the mid-19th century.

===See also===
*[[Daughter Language]]
*[[Genealogical Classification]]
*[[Sister Language]]

===Other languages===
German [[Sprachfamilie]]

{{dc}}
[[Category:Genealogy]]

Hadza

2021-01-05T03:48:33Z

Kirk Miller: /* Dialects */

{{InfoboxLanguage
|Language = Hadza
|Autonym = ''Haza, hazane''
|Pronunciation = ɦad͜za
|Ethn15name = Hadza
|Countries = Tanzania
|OfficialLg = none
|OLACname = Hadza
|WALSLoc = 3°45′ S, 35°10′ E
|Speakers = 1,000
|Family = [[isolate]]
|Genus = Hadza
|WritingSyst = none
|ISO3 = hts
}}

Hadza is a language isolate of Tanzania.

=== Location and Speakers ===
Hadza is spoken along the entire eastern shore of alkaline Lake Eyasi, which lies at the base of the Serengeti Plateau in central Tanzania, from Mount Oldeani in the north (just south of Ngorongoro Crater) to the Isanzu agricultural areas in the south. The Hadza do not live at altitudes much above 1500 meters, as they do not build shelters that will ward off the night chill at higher elevations.

There is a small population of Hadza to the west of the lake, in ''Dunduhina'' /duƞtuhina/<ref>This article uses the old IPA letter for a moraic nasal, ⟨ƞ⟩, which was retired from the IPA alphabet because it had no specific phonetic value. In Hadza, the moraic nasal is homorganic with a following consonant.</ref> 'Sukumaland', but their number seems to be decreasing and many only speak Sukuma and Swahili.

There are approximately 1,000 speakers of Hadza, most now bilingual in Swahili. Other second languages include [[Isanzu]] in the south, [[Sukuma]] in the west, and to a lesser degree [[Datooga]] in the center (e.g. near the Yaeda Valley to the southeast of the lake) and [[Iraqw]] on the margins of the Iraqw highlands. The northern Hadza area, around the town of Mangola, was largely monolingual until the introduction of Standard Swahili after independence, though there are loanwords from colonial-era 'upcountry' Swahili.

As of 2005, about 40% of Hadza lived as full-time hunter-gatherers, and language transmission was robust in the areas east of the lake, but since then there have been reports of children speaking Swahili east of the lake, perhaps due to the influx of ''Dunduhinabee'' abandoning their territory in the west.

=== Classification ===
Hadza is a [[language isolate]]. Greenberg classified it as [[Khoisan]] due to its use of [[click consonant]]s. If it were not for the clicks, it's likely that Hadza would have been classified as [[Cushitic]]. Hadza and Sandawe have very similar phonetic inventories and phonotactics, suggesting an old sprachbund. However, the only detected commonalities in vocabulary are old Cushitic loans or perhaps loans that passed from one to the other through Cushitic. Much of the borrowed Cushitic vocabulary is consistent with reconstructions of proto-West Rift.

=== Dialects ===
There are no dialects of Hadza, presumably due to the mobility of its speakers. There are some regional differences of vocabulary, however, and speakers note that many more Bantu loans are used in the south. Some differences in pronunciation have been recorded from people from different areas, but it's not clear if these differences are regional accents or individual variation.

=== Name ===
"Hadza" is the most common name in the literature. ''Haza'' /ɦad͜za/ simply means 'human being'. The derivative "Hadzane" (/ɦad͜zane/ 'in the manner of the people') is sometimes encountered as the name of the language. The feminine plural ''hazabee'' /ɦad͜zabeʔe/ may be used for the people, though it is usually spelled "Hadzabe" due to devoicing of the final vowel. (The feminine is the inclusive gender in the plural.) "Hadzapi" is the masculine-plural copular form ''hazaphii'' /ɦad͜zapʰiʔi/. "Hatza" and "Hatsa" are older German spellings.

"Tindiga" is from the Swahili name, ''watindiga'' 'people of the marsh grass', presumably named for the large spring in Mangola. The forms ''wahadza'', ''kihadza'' are found instead of ''watindiga'', ''kitindiga'' in recent Swahili publications, but the Hadza do not consider ''watindiga'' to be pejorative. "Kindiga" may be a cognate from one of the local Bantu languages. "Kangeju" (pronounced ''Kangeyu'') is an obsolete German name of unclear origin. The name "Wahi" (pronounced ''Vahi'') found for the western Hadza in Kohl-Larsen is a Sukuma name for the Hadza.

=== Orthography ===
Hadza does not have a written tradition. Two orthographies have seen recent use: the phonetic transcription of Tucker, Bryan & Woodburn (1977), used with some modification by Woodburn and other anthropologists, and the practical orthography of Anyawire et al. (2013). As it is based on the IPA, the Woodburn transcription is more accessible to linguists, while the Anyawire orthography is closer to Sandawe and other written languages of Tanzania. There is evidently some political controversy over the choice of orthography, with Hadza reporting they have been told that if they use the Anyawire orthography they will loose their land. There are two motivations for the Anyawire orthography: the perception that the IPA click letters of the Woodburn transcription portray the Hadza language as bizarre, when the Hadza people already have difficulties with being marginalized and a perception that they are not proper human beings, and the practical issue that the ubiquitous apostrophe of the Woodburn transcription makes it impractical for extended use. The apostrophes are generally omitted by those Hadza who have learned the Woodburn system, with the resulting texts often being unintelligible even to their authors; when the apostrophes are written, they greatly slow down the pace of writing. In the Anyawire orthography, doubled consonants are used for glottalized/ejective consonants and doubled vowels for glottal stop, with the apostrophe only being used for the Swahili convention of ⟨ngʼ⟩ for borrowed /ŋ/.

The Anyawire orthography is used alongside the IPA in this article for accessibility with the Anyawire dictionary. For clarity, an apostrophe will be retained in this article for glottal stop between unlike vowels, e.g. ⟨ae⟩ /ae/ vs ⟨aʼe⟩ /aʔe/. In practice, the Hadza are more likely to write an epenthetic glide between vowels in hiatus, e.g. ⟨aye⟩ for /ae/ vs ⟨ae⟩ for /aʔe/.

=== Phonology ===
Hadza syllable structure is limited to CVN in native words. There are no vowel-initial roots, unless ''h'' is analyzed as an allophone of zero. It is possible that nasal codas are found primarily in loan words and ideophones. This N surfaces as a homorganic nasal when a following consonant has a place of articulation for it to assimilate to, and as nasalization of the vowel before a glottal consonant (glottal stop and ''h''/zero) and pre-pausa. Coda N also appears allophonically before voiced nasal and glottalized nasal clicks. A moraic (syllabic?) nasal is also found word-initially in loans from Bantu and Datooga (and, due to metathesis, in a few Cushitic loans), in which case it may have a different pitch than the following vowel, or may be preceded by an epenthetic vowel; such nasals are analyzed here as NCV sequences rather than as a series of prenasalized consonants. Phonetically, initial #NCV may also occur in shortened forms when the initial hV syllable of a #hVC₂V-shaped word is elided and C₂ is a glottalized nasal click.

==== Stress and tone ====
It is not yet clear whether Hadza has phonemic tone. If it does, it is likely to have a minimal system of the kind often called [[pitch accent]]. Salient stress and pitch are not restricted to a particular syllable; their position may vary between elicitations of at least some words pronounced in isolation, but in some words pitch appears to be fixed. Heavy syllables tend to attract stress but again the pattern is not absolute. There are no known minimal pairs, grammatical or lexical, for stress or pitch. Minimal pairs claimed in the literature have turned out to either not be distinct in pronunciation, or to not be minimal pairs (e.g., one of the words may have an additional morpheme such as the habitual suffix ''-e'', which frequently reduces to vowel length and attracts stress). It may be that some loanwords retain the tone of their source language.

==== Vowels ====
There are five phonemic vowels, which are close to cardinal [a e i o u].

{| class="wikitable" style=text-align:center
|+Hadza vowels
| style="background: white" |
! Front
! Central
! Back
|-
! High
| i || || u
|-
! Mid
| e || || o
|-
! Low
| || a ||
|}

Phonetic nasal vowels, which are not common except before a consonant, are here analyzed as /VN/.

Phonetic long vowels are often sequences, as in ''kaha'' [kaː] ~ [kaɦa] 'to climb'. In some words, however, there is no allomorph with [ɦ], as in ''bôko'' [boːko] 'she' (forms a minimal pair with ''boko'' [boko] 'to be ill') and ''sêta'' [seːta] 'moon'. There is no known minimal set to establish long /Vː/ as distinct from a /VV/ sequence.

The mid vowels /e, o/ tend to rise when a high vowel, /i, u/, occurs in the following syllable, and /e, o/ may merge with /i, u/ in that position. However, such assimilation tends to be optional, even in suffixed pronouns such as ''onebii'' [ʔone̝biʔi] ~ ''unibii'' [ʔunibiʔi] 'we' (masculine, inclusive).

/u/ is relatively uncommon except in loans or due to vowel-height assimilation. /u/ does not occur at all in grammatical morphemes unless the morpheme has a second syllable with vowel /i/, and so is presumably a historical *o in such cases.

Vowels tend to devoice in pre-pausa position after a voiceless consonant. In the highly frequent pattern of word-final -V₁ʔV₁ (where the two vowels are the same, a pattern found in half of all grammatical suffixes and clitics though not frequently elsewhere), the vowel and preceding glottal stop tend to elide completely when pre-pausa, and either elide or reduce to a long vowel before a suffix/clitic or another word.

==== Consonants ====
Hadza has at least 50 productive syllable onsets and several other marginal consonants.

{| class="wikitable" style=text-align:center
|+Principal Hadza consonants (Parentheses: loans. Dark background: may follow a nasal coda.)
! rowspan=2 colspan=2 |
! rowspan=2 | Labial
! rowspan=2 colspan=2 | (Denti-) alveolar
! rowspan=2 | (Post-) alveolar
! rowspan=2 | Palatal
! colspan=2 | Post-velar
! rowspan=2 | Glottal/ placeless
|- class=small
! plain
! labialized
|-
! rowspan=4 | Click
! Aspirated
|
| colspan=2 style="background: silver" |ᵏǀʰ
| style="background: silver" |ᵏǃʰ
| style="background: LightGray" |ᵏǁʰ
| colspan=3 rowspan=4 style="background: white" |
|-
! Tenuis
|
| colspan=2 style="background: silver" |ᵏǀ
| style="background: Gainsboro" |ᵏǃ
| style="background: Gainsboro" |ᵏǁ
|-
! Voiced nasal
|
| colspan=2 | ⁿǀ
| ⁿǃ
| ⁿǁ
|-
! Glottalized nasal
|
| colspan=2 | ⁿǀˀ
| ⁿǃˀ
| ⁿǁˀ
|-
! rowspan=5 | Plosive / affricate
|-
! Ejective
| pʼ
| colspan=2| t͜sʼ
| t͜ʃʼ
| c͜ʎ̥˔ʼ
| k͜xʼ
| k͜xʷʼ
| style="background: white" |
|-
! Aspirated
| style="background: silver" |pʰ
| style="background: silver" |tʰ
| style="background: silver" |t͜sʰ
| style="background: silver" |t͜ʃʰ
| c͜ʎ̥˔ʰ
| style="background: silver" |kʰ
| style="background: silver" |kʷʰ
|
|-
! Tenuis
| style="background: silver" |p
| style="background: silver" |t
| style="background: silver" |t͜s
| style="background: silver" |t͜ʃ
| c͜ʎ̥˔
| style="background: silver" |k
| style="background: silver" |kʷ
| style="background: silver" |ʔ
|-
! Voiced
| b
| (d)
| (d͜z)
| (d͜ʒ)
|
| (ɡ)
| (ɡʷ)
| style="background: white" |
|-
! colspan=2| Nasal
| m
| colspan=2| n
| colspan=2| (ɲ)
| (ŋ)
| (ŋʷ)
| //ƞ//
|-
! colspan=2 | Fricative
| (fʷ)
| ɬ
| s
| ʃ
|
|
|
|
|-
! colspan=2 | Sonorant
|
| colspan=2 | ɺ
|
| j
|
| w
| style="background: silver" | ɦ (zero?)
|}

Consonants in parentheses are thought to be loans, though the voiced obstruents at least are well-integrated and may be spreading to native roots.

Consonants with a medium grey background may follow a coda nasal in the preceding syllable (that is, they may be C₂ in a CVNCV pattern), whereas those on the lightest grey background may not. Alveolar /ǃ/ and lateral /ǁ/ (medium light grey) are not attested in this environment. However, it is suspected these gaps may be accidental, given that only two roots are known with dental /ǀ/ as C₂ after a nasal coda and that these sequences have not yet been investigated in the field. Moreover, the one known case of aspirated lateral /ƞǁʰ/, though its identity was clear when elicited, needs to be confirmed with additional speakers. A word with the same sequence reported in Tucker, Bryan & Woodburn could not be confirmed by Anyawire et al.

The voice-onset time of consonants is reduced after a nasal coda: [[tenuis]] consonants may be partially or completely voiced, and the aspiration of aspirated consonants may be reduced or lost. This is true of clicks as well as of plosives and affricates, and is reflected in both orthographies. There is only a two-way VOT distinction after a nasal coda. A /b/~/p/ distinction has not been found in post-nasal position despite /b/ being native.

Aspiration may only be distinct in the first several syllables of a word. Many speakers distinguish aspirated plosives in only a few words that contrast /k/ and /kʰ/, but maintain a robust aspiration distinction in affricates and clicks. The reason for this asymmetry is unknown.

The glottalized nasal clicks surface as [Ʞʔ] (where ⟨Ʞ⟩ stands for any click release) post-pausa and often as [ŋ͡nʔꞰ] intervocalically. Accounts differ as to whether there is voiceless nasal airflow preceding the click in post-pausa position.

Aspirated clicks may have a delayed and clearly audible posterior release, e.g. [Ʞʰ] ~ [Ʞkʰ]. The audible release has the same post-velar articulation as the ''k''-series of plosives.

The alveolar clicks sound rather palatal with some speakers, and tend to be weakly articulated, though, so far as is known, not slapped as they can be in Sandawe. (Reports of slapped [ǃ¡] clicks in Hadza by a UCLA team in the 1990s could not be confirmed with the UCLA archives, and it would appear that weak/flapped alveolar clicks were erroneously identified with slapped Sandawe clicks that the team had recorded a few weeks earlier.) When intervocalic, nasal alveolar /ⁿǃ/ may surface as, or nearly as, a doubly articulated pulmonic nasal [ŋ͡n]. The lateral clicks, on the other hand, are typically quite salient, and such phonetic reduction has not be noted. They appear to have the same post-alveolar to palatal place of articulation as the lateral affricates. The 'dental' (denti-alveolar) clicks are unremarkable, but are less common than the others.

Among the ejectives, /pʼ/ is uncommon and may be ideophonic. Most other ejectives vary between affricate and fricative realizations. Fricative allophens [sʼ, ʃʼ, xʼ, xʷʼ] have been noted for /t͜sʼ, t͜ʃʼ, k͜xʼ, k͜xʷʼ/. Velar /k͜xʼ/ and /k͜xʷʼ/ also have plosive allophones, [kʼ, kʷʼ], and /k͜xʼ/ has a lateral allophone [k͜ʟ̝̊ʼ]. Ejective /t͜sʼ/ may correspond phonologically to both the plosive and affricate (/t/ and /t͜s/) alveolar series of pulmonic consonants.

The palatal lateral affricates may be pronounced with an alveolar onset, e.g. [t͜ʎ̥˔], or without involving the front of the tongue, e.g. [c͜ʎ̥˔]. Speakers express no preference when hearing these articulations. The relatively uncommon fricative /ɬ/, however, is alveolar; a palatal articulation is not accepted. Given that the fricative may be pronounced as an affricate in some prosodic situations, this means that there is a three-way phonetic place contrast among laterals: [t͜ɬ] vs [t͜ʎ̥˔ ~ c͜ʎ̥˔] and [t͜ʎ̥˔ʼ ~ c͜ʎ̥˔ʼ] vs [k͜ʟ̝̊ʼ].

/ɺ/ is typically realized as [l] post-pausa and [ɾ] elsewhere, though [ɺ] is not uncommon in either position. It tends toward [l] when it occurs as both C₁ and C₂, as in /ɺoɺa/ (sp. rabbit).

[ɦ] and zero may be allophones. If so, and given that vowel-initial suffixes and clitics may elide a short stem-final vowel, it would be simplest to posit that the phoneme is zero and that [ɦ] is an allophone of zero, rather than that /ɦ/ is elided under some conditions. A predictive conditioning environment for the presence or absence of [ɦ] has not been discovered, but prosody may play a role; even vowel-initial suffixes and clitics may be realized with an initial [ɦ] when given contrastive prosody. Assimilation or bilingualism may be involved in the case of loanwords. For instance, an Isanzu loan for 'snake' was recorded as ''ihato'' /ʔiɦato/ at the beginning of the 20th century (and perhaps in an Isanzu-biligual area) but as ''iyato'' /ʔiato/ at the beginning of the 21st century in Mangola.

The glides /j/ and /w/ are not distinctive next to high front /i/ and back /u/, respectively, and rarely (or uncertainly) distinctive next to mid front /e/ and back /o/. It is possible that medial ''y'' and ''w'' are phonemically /i/ and /u/ and that initial ''y'' and ''w'' are /ʔi/ and /ʔu/. When they occur word-initially, purported /jV, wV/ often appear as [ʔi(j)V] and [ʔu(w)V]. This is true even of a ubiquitous sequential auxiliary (''yamo'' [jamo] ~ ''iamo'' [ʔiamo] in the 3msg posterior (past?) tense). [j] does occur in two object suffixes, and it is not clear if these can be explained away as /i/. In the anthropological and linguistic literature, glides ''y'' and ''w'' are often written between unlike vowels. For example, the 3msg non-past copula clitic ''-ha'' /ɦa/ is often transcribed as ''ya'' after a front vowel and as ''wa'' after a back vowel. (The copula sometimes contains a very clear [ɦ], and pre-pausa even [h] due to final devoicing, but often the /ɦ/ is realized as transitional murmur or possibly elided altogether.)

===== Marginal consonants =====

A labial click, variously reported as [ⁿʘʷ] or [ⁿʘˀ], is found in a single root, ''mcwa-'', that is mimetic for a kiss and often made with an accompanying kiss to the hand. ''Mcwa-'' may be allomorphic with ''ncuwa-'' /ⁿǀua/ 'kiss', with a dental click.

A trill [r] is used by some speakers in some words, such as ''karro'' /karo/ (hunting/sighting name for a female giraffe), perhaps reflecting the pronunciation of the word in the language it was borrowed from. It is replaced with /ɺ/ (''karo'' /kaɺo/) by other speakers.

An implosive [ɓ] is used by some speakers in some words, perhaps reflecting the pronunciation of the word in the source language, though in some instances it might co-occur with ejectives, which would be difficult to explain away as a loan (e.g. ''beggawuko'' /bekx’auko/ 'elephant', apparently [ɓekx’auko] in some recordings). It is replaced with /b/ by other speakers. Other implosives have not been noted.

A fricative [x] occurs lexicalized in an expletive, ''ahho'' [ʔaxo], where otherwise the root is ''akho'' /ʔakʰo/ 'genitals'. (/kʰ/ is commonly realized as [kx].)

Word-initial /mu/ and occasionally /mo/ are optionally realized as syllabic [m̩], for example in the common greeting ''mutana'' ~ ''mtana''. This is a Bantu alternation.

/v/ may occasionally be found in loans, as in mimetic ''vûvuko'' ~ ''fûfuko'' /vuːvuko ~ fuːfuko/ 'propeller toy', though it is normally replaced with /f/. [v] (or perhaps [β]) has been reported for /b/, for example in Bleek's transcriptions of the plural suffixes ''-bee'' and ''-bii'' as 've' and 'vi'.

===== Phonotactics =====
All clicks within a root must be the same, as in /ǀikiɺiƞǀa/ 'pinkie'. Although there is a tendency for click consonants and ejectives to occur as C₁, in a quarter of words with clicks the click occurs only as C₂, and in other words as both C₁ and C₂.

Clicks and ejectives may co-occur, though always in that order. When they co-occur, there appears to be some sibilant/lateral harmony, with a strong tendency for /t͜sʼ/ to occur after denti-alveolar clicks and for /c͜ʎ̥˔ʼ/ to occur after lateral clicks. (/k͜xʼ/ does not seem to be affected by the click, and is common after all places/types.)

When an aspirated consonant occurs more than once in a word, the first instance tends to deaspirate (as in [[Grassman's Law|Grassmann's]]/[[Katupha's Law]], though generally optional in Hadza). A coda N may block deaspiration, as in the allomorphs /peǃeǃʰe/ ~ /peƞǃʰeƞǃʰe/ 'to rush'. Repeated NC sequences may loose their nasal segment as well, as in /ƞtʰaɺaƞtʰaɺaʔabiʔi/ ~ /taɺaƞtʰaɺaʔabiʔi/ '(arrow) barbs'. It is not clear to what extent these patterns hold if the aspirated consonants are different rather than repeated phonemes.

===Swadesh lists===
Only roots are given below. For example, the word for 'name', given here as the root ''akhana'', is actually feminine plural ''akhanabee''.

====Wichmann & Holman basic 40-word list (ordered by stability)====

#louse ''ccamazzi'' /ⁿǀˀamat͜sʼi/<ref>cf. ''ccezze'' /ⁿǀˀet͜s’e/ 'tick'</ref>
#two ''piye'' /pie/, ''konxa'' /koⁿǁa/ (verb)
#water ''ati'' /ʔati/ (mpl; msg = 'rain, river')
#ear ''hajjapitchi'' /ɦat͜ʃ’apit͜ʃʰi/<ref>from ''hazzape'' /ɦat͜s’ape/ 'leaf'?</ref>
#to die ''taxxi'' /taⁿǁˀi/, ''misi'' /misi/ (Datooga?)
#I *one /ʔone/, */-ko/<ref>If *-ko-a > /-kʷa/ rather than *-kʷa-ʔV > /-koʔo/.</ref>
#liver ''xxe'' /ⁿǁˀe/
#eye ''akhwa'' /ʔakʷʰa/
#hand, arm ''ukhwa'' /ʔukʷʰa/
#hear ''nxaʼe'' /ⁿǁaʔe/
#tree ''zziti'' /t͜s’iti/
#fish ''ccama'' /ⁿǀˀama/, ''ccara'' /ⁿǀˀaɺa/
#name ''akhana'' /ʔakʰana/
#stone ''haqqa'' /ɦaⁿǃˀa/
#tooth ''aha'' /ʔaɦa/
#breast ''iriba'' /ʔiɺiba/ ('breasts, milk'. Cushitic); ''ggazza'' /k͜x’at͜s’a/ ('flesh at sternum')
#thou ''the'' /tʰe/, /-en-/ (m), /-n-/ (f)
#path ''yeke'' /jeke/
#bone ''midla'' /mic͜ʎ̥˔’a/ (cf. Dahalo)
#tongue ''ncata'' /ⁿǀata/
#skin ''ahu'' /ʔaɦu/
#night ''zzifi'' /t͜s’ifi/ (m; f = 'day')
#leaf ''hazzape'' /ɦat͜s’ape/
#rain = 'water' (msg = 'rain, river'; mpl = 'water')
#kill ''xô'' /ǁoː/
#blood ''athama'' /ʔatʰama/
#horn ''roo'' /ɺoʔo/
#person ''haza'' /ɦad͜za/ (human), ''unu'' /ʔunu/ (person)
#knee ''guringuri'' /ɡuɺiƞɡuɺi/ ~ ''gurunguri'' /ɡuɺuƞɡuɺi/ (Cushitic? pan-African)
#one ''itchâme'' /ʔit͜ʃʰaːme/
#nose ''intawe'' /ʔiƞtʰawe/
#full ''ggaʼe'' /k͜x’aʔe/, *cco- /ⁿǀˀo-/
#come ''za'' /d͜za/ (Bantu), ''botco'' /bot͜ʃo/ (stem of imperative)
#star ''ntsa'' /ƞt͜sʰa/, ''sa'' /sa/ (Cushitic?)<ref>Anyawire et al. (2013) only found ''ntsa''. Tucker et al. (1977) report ''sa'' 'star', and Woodburn confirms the form he knows does not have a nasal onset. /ƞ/ + /sa/ would generate /ƞt͜sʰa/. Indeed, speakers do not care if the latter is written ''ntsa'' or ''nsa''. There are several Cushitic loanwords that have an onset that varies as C ~ NC in Hadza where the source language is only reconstructed with C.</ref>
#mountain ''xxudle'' /ⁿǁˀuc͜ʎ̥˔’e/
#fire ''zzoko'' /t͜s’oko/
#we (exclusive) ''ô'' /ʔoː/, /-j-/
#to drink ''fa'' /fʷa/
#to see ''chî'' /ǀʰiː/ ~ ''cî'' /ǀiː/
#bark ''heggwa'' /ɦek͜xʷ’a/
#new ''zana'' /d͜zana/<ref>from ''za'' 'come'?</ref>
#dog ''xhaano'' /ǁʰaʔano/, ''tîngi'' /tiːƞki/
#sun ''isho'' /ʔiʃo/

===Notes===
<references/>

===Bibliography===

* Mariamu Anyawire, G.G. Bala, Kirk Miller (ed.) & Bonny Sands (2013). ''A Hadza Lexicon'' (ms).
* Roger Blench (2008). [https://web.archive.org/web/20110721180216/http://www.rogerblench.info/Language%20data/Khoesan/Blench%20paper%20Riezlern%202008.pdf Hadza Animal Names.] Paper presented at the 3rd International Symposium on Khoisan Languages and Linguistics, Riezlern, 7–9 July 2008.
* Niklas Edenmyr (2004). [https://web.archive.org/web/20070706040409/http://www.african.gu.se/aa/pdfs/aa04003.pdf The semantics of Hadza gender assignment: a few notes from the field.] ''Africa & Asia'', no. 4, Department of Oriental and African languages, Göteborg University, 3–19.
* Edward Elderkin (1978). Loans in Hadza: internal evidence from consonants. ''Occasional Papers'' 3, Dar es Salaam.
* Peter Ladefoged, Ian Maddieson & Bonny Sands (1991). [http://archive.phonetics.ucla.edu/Language/HTS/hts.html Hadza wordlist and sound files]. UCLA Phonetics Lab Archive.
* ———— (1993). [https://www.academia.edu/17743030/The_phonetic_structures_of_Hadza The Phonetic Structures of Hadza.] In [http://repositories.cdlib.org/uclaling/wpp/No84/ ''UCLA Working Papers in Phonetics'' No. 84: ''Fieldwork Studies in Targeted Languages'',] 67–87.
* Kirk Miller (2008). [https://www.academia.edu/36533859/Hadza_grammar_notes Hadza Grammar Notes.] Paper presented at the 3rd International Symposium on Khoisan Languages and Linguistics, Riezlern, 7–9 July 2008.
* ———— (2009). [https://www.academia.edu/36533860/Highlights_of_Hadza_Fieldwork Highlights of Hadza fieldwork.] Paper presented at the 83rd Annual Meeting of the Linguistic Society of America, San Francisco, 8–11 January 2009.
* ———— (2016). Hadza Kinship Terms. In Shah & Brenzinger, eds., ''Khoisan Languages and Linguistics: Proceedings of the 5th International Symposium, July 13–17, 2014, Riezlern/Kleinwalsertal.'' Cologne: Rüdiger Köppe, 277–333.
* Bonny Sands (1998). The Linguistic Relationship between Hadza and Khoisan. In Schladt, Matthias (ed.) ''Language, Identity, and Conceptualization among the Khoisan'' (Quellen zur Khoisan-Forschung Vol. 15), Cologne: Rüdiger Köppe, 265–283.
* ———— (2013). Phonetics and phonology: Hadza; Tonology: Hadza; Morphology: Hadza; Syntax: Hadza. In Rainer Vossen, ed., ''The Khoesan Languages''. Oxford: Routledge.
*Sergei Starostin. [http://starling.rinet.ru/cgi-bin/response.cgi?root=new100&morpho=0&basename=new100\hdz\hdz&limit=-1 Hadza basic lexicon.] Global Lexicostatistical Database. [much of the parsing is speculation, and Bleek's posthumous data is unreliable]
* A.N. Tucker, M.A. Bryan & James Woodburn as co-author for Hadza (1977). The East African Click Languages: A Phonetic Comparison. In J.G. Moehlig, Franz Rottland, Bernd Heine, eds, ''Zur Sprachgeschichte und Ethnohistorie in Afrika.'' Berlin: Dietrich Diener.

[[Category:En]]
[[Category:Single language]]

Hadza

2021-01-05T03:45:49Z

Kirk Miller: /* Location and Speakers */

{{InfoboxLanguage
|Language = Hadza
|Autonym = ''Haza, hazane''
|Pronunciation = ɦad͜za
|Ethn15name = Hadza
|Countries = Tanzania
|OfficialLg = none
|OLACname = Hadza
|WALSLoc = 3°45′ S, 35°10′ E
|Speakers = 1,000
|Family = [[isolate]]
|Genus = Hadza
|WritingSyst = none
|ISO3 = hts
}}

Hadza is a language isolate of Tanzania.

=== Location and Speakers ===
Hadza is spoken along the entire eastern shore of alkaline Lake Eyasi, which lies at the base of the Serengeti Plateau in central Tanzania, from Mount Oldeani in the north (just south of Ngorongoro Crater) to the Isanzu agricultural areas in the south. The Hadza do not live at altitudes much above 1500 meters, as they do not build shelters that will ward off the night chill at higher elevations.

There is a small population of Hadza to the west of the lake, in ''Dunduhina'' /duƞtuhina/<ref>This article uses the old IPA letter for a moraic nasal, ⟨ƞ⟩, which was retired from the IPA alphabet because it had no specific phonetic value. In Hadza, the moraic nasal is homorganic with a following consonant.</ref> 'Sukumaland', but their number seems to be decreasing and many only speak Sukuma and Swahili.

There are approximately 1,000 speakers of Hadza, most now bilingual in Swahili. Other second languages include [[Isanzu]] in the south, [[Sukuma]] in the west, and to a lesser degree [[Datooga]] in the center (e.g. near the Yaeda Valley to the southeast of the lake) and [[Iraqw]] on the margins of the Iraqw highlands. The northern Hadza area, around the town of Mangola, was largely monolingual until the introduction of Standard Swahili after independence, though there are loanwords from colonial-era 'upcountry' Swahili.

As of 2005, about 40% of Hadza lived as full-time hunter-gatherers, and language transmission was robust in the areas east of the lake, but since then there have been reports of children speaking Swahili east of the lake, perhaps due to the influx of ''Dunduhinabee'' abandoning their territory in the west.

=== Classification ===
Hadza is a [[language isolate]]. Greenberg classified it as [[Khoisan]] due to its use of [[click consonant]]s. If it were not for the clicks, it's likely that Hadza would have been classified as [[Cushitic]]. Hadza and Sandawe have very similar phonetic inventories and phonotactics, suggesting an old sprachbund. However, the only detected commonalities in vocabulary are old Cushitic loans or perhaps loans that passed from one to the other through Cushitic. Much of the borrowed Cushitic vocabulary is consistent with reconstructions of proto-West Rift.

=== Dialects ===
There do not appear to be any dialects of Hadza, presumably due to the mobility of its speakers. There are some regional differences of vocabulary, however, and speakers note that many more Bantu loans are used in the south.

=== Name ===
"Hadza" is the most common name in the literature. ''Haza'' /ɦad͜za/ simply means 'human being'. The derivative "Hadzane" (/ɦad͜zane/ 'in the manner of the people') is sometimes encountered as the name of the language. The feminine plural ''hazabee'' /ɦad͜zabeʔe/ may be used for the people, though it is usually spelled "Hadzabe" due to devoicing of the final vowel. (The feminine is the inclusive gender in the plural.) "Hadzapi" is the masculine-plural copular form ''hazaphii'' /ɦad͜zapʰiʔi/. "Hatza" and "Hatsa" are older German spellings.

"Tindiga" is from the Swahili name, ''watindiga'' 'people of the marsh grass', presumably named for the large spring in Mangola. The forms ''wahadza'', ''kihadza'' are found instead of ''watindiga'', ''kitindiga'' in recent Swahili publications, but the Hadza do not consider ''watindiga'' to be pejorative. "Kindiga" may be a cognate from one of the local Bantu languages. "Kangeju" (pronounced ''Kangeyu'') is an obsolete German name of unclear origin. The name "Wahi" (pronounced ''Vahi'') found for the western Hadza in Kohl-Larsen is a Sukuma name for the Hadza.

=== Orthography ===
Hadza does not have a written tradition. Two orthographies have seen recent use: the phonetic transcription of Tucker, Bryan & Woodburn (1977), used with some modification by Woodburn and other anthropologists, and the practical orthography of Anyawire et al. (2013). As it is based on the IPA, the Woodburn transcription is more accessible to linguists, while the Anyawire orthography is closer to Sandawe and other written languages of Tanzania. There is evidently some political controversy over the choice of orthography, with Hadza reporting they have been told that if they use the Anyawire orthography they will loose their land. There are two motivations for the Anyawire orthography: the perception that the IPA click letters of the Woodburn transcription portray the Hadza language as bizarre, when the Hadza people already have difficulties with being marginalized and a perception that they are not proper human beings, and the practical issue that the ubiquitous apostrophe of the Woodburn transcription makes it impractical for extended use. The apostrophes are generally omitted by those Hadza who have learned the Woodburn system, with the resulting texts often being unintelligible even to their authors; when the apostrophes are written, they greatly slow down the pace of writing. In the Anyawire orthography, doubled consonants are used for glottalized/ejective consonants and doubled vowels for glottal stop, with the apostrophe only being used for the Swahili convention of ⟨ngʼ⟩ for borrowed /ŋ/.

The Anyawire orthography is used alongside the IPA in this article for accessibility with the Anyawire dictionary. For clarity, an apostrophe will be retained in this article for glottal stop between unlike vowels, e.g. ⟨ae⟩ /ae/ vs ⟨aʼe⟩ /aʔe/. In practice, the Hadza are more likely to write an epenthetic glide between vowels in hiatus, e.g. ⟨aye⟩ for /ae/ vs ⟨ae⟩ for /aʔe/.

=== Phonology ===
Hadza syllable structure is limited to CVN in native words. There are no vowel-initial roots, unless ''h'' is analyzed as an allophone of zero. It is possible that nasal codas are found primarily in loan words and ideophones. This N surfaces as a homorganic nasal when a following consonant has a place of articulation for it to assimilate to, and as nasalization of the vowel before a glottal consonant (glottal stop and ''h''/zero) and pre-pausa. Coda N also appears allophonically before voiced nasal and glottalized nasal clicks. A moraic (syllabic?) nasal is also found word-initially in loans from Bantu and Datooga (and, due to metathesis, in a few Cushitic loans), in which case it may have a different pitch than the following vowel, or may be preceded by an epenthetic vowel; such nasals are analyzed here as NCV sequences rather than as a series of prenasalized consonants. Phonetically, initial #NCV may also occur in shortened forms when the initial hV syllable of a #hVC₂V-shaped word is elided and C₂ is a glottalized nasal click.

==== Stress and tone ====
It is not yet clear whether Hadza has phonemic tone. If it does, it is likely to have a minimal system of the kind often called [[pitch accent]]. Salient stress and pitch are not restricted to a particular syllable; their position may vary between elicitations of at least some words pronounced in isolation, but in some words pitch appears to be fixed. Heavy syllables tend to attract stress but again the pattern is not absolute. There are no known minimal pairs, grammatical or lexical, for stress or pitch. Minimal pairs claimed in the literature have turned out to either not be distinct in pronunciation, or to not be minimal pairs (e.g., one of the words may have an additional morpheme such as the habitual suffix ''-e'', which frequently reduces to vowel length and attracts stress). It may be that some loanwords retain the tone of their source language.

==== Vowels ====
There are five phonemic vowels, which are close to cardinal [a e i o u].

{| class="wikitable" style=text-align:center
|+Hadza vowels
| style="background: white" |
! Front
! Central
! Back
|-
! High
| i || || u
|-
! Mid
| e || || o
|-
! Low
| || a ||
|}

Phonetic nasal vowels, which are not common except before a consonant, are here analyzed as /VN/.

Phonetic long vowels are often sequences, as in ''kaha'' [kaː] ~ [kaɦa] 'to climb'. In some words, however, there is no allomorph with [ɦ], as in ''bôko'' [boːko] 'she' (forms a minimal pair with ''boko'' [boko] 'to be ill') and ''sêta'' [seːta] 'moon'. There is no known minimal set to establish long /Vː/ as distinct from a /VV/ sequence.

The mid vowels /e, o/ tend to rise when a high vowel, /i, u/, occurs in the following syllable, and /e, o/ may merge with /i, u/ in that position. However, such assimilation tends to be optional, even in suffixed pronouns such as ''onebii'' [ʔone̝biʔi] ~ ''unibii'' [ʔunibiʔi] 'we' (masculine, inclusive).

/u/ is relatively uncommon except in loans or due to vowel-height assimilation. /u/ does not occur at all in grammatical morphemes unless the morpheme has a second syllable with vowel /i/, and so is presumably a historical *o in such cases.

Vowels tend to devoice in pre-pausa position after a voiceless consonant. In the highly frequent pattern of word-final -V₁ʔV₁ (where the two vowels are the same, a pattern found in half of all grammatical suffixes and clitics though not frequently elsewhere), the vowel and preceding glottal stop tend to elide completely when pre-pausa, and either elide or reduce to a long vowel before a suffix/clitic or another word.

==== Consonants ====
Hadza has at least 50 productive syllable onsets and several other marginal consonants.

{| class="wikitable" style=text-align:center
|+Principal Hadza consonants (Parentheses: loans. Dark background: may follow a nasal coda.)
! rowspan=2 colspan=2 |
! rowspan=2 | Labial
! rowspan=2 colspan=2 | (Denti-) alveolar
! rowspan=2 | (Post-) alveolar
! rowspan=2 | Palatal
! colspan=2 | Post-velar
! rowspan=2 | Glottal/ placeless
|- class=small
! plain
! labialized
|-
! rowspan=4 | Click
! Aspirated
|
| colspan=2 style="background: silver" |ᵏǀʰ
| style="background: silver" |ᵏǃʰ
| style="background: LightGray" |ᵏǁʰ
| colspan=3 rowspan=4 style="background: white" |
|-
! Tenuis
|
| colspan=2 style="background: silver" |ᵏǀ
| style="background: Gainsboro" |ᵏǃ
| style="background: Gainsboro" |ᵏǁ
|-
! Voiced nasal
|
| colspan=2 | ⁿǀ
| ⁿǃ
| ⁿǁ
|-
! Glottalized nasal
|
| colspan=2 | ⁿǀˀ
| ⁿǃˀ
| ⁿǁˀ
|-
! rowspan=5 | Plosive / affricate
|-
! Ejective
| pʼ
| colspan=2| t͜sʼ
| t͜ʃʼ
| c͜ʎ̥˔ʼ
| k͜xʼ
| k͜xʷʼ
| style="background: white" |
|-
! Aspirated
| style="background: silver" |pʰ
| style="background: silver" |tʰ
| style="background: silver" |t͜sʰ
| style="background: silver" |t͜ʃʰ
| c͜ʎ̥˔ʰ
| style="background: silver" |kʰ
| style="background: silver" |kʷʰ
|
|-
! Tenuis
| style="background: silver" |p
| style="background: silver" |t
| style="background: silver" |t͜s
| style="background: silver" |t͜ʃ
| c͜ʎ̥˔
| style="background: silver" |k
| style="background: silver" |kʷ
| style="background: silver" |ʔ
|-
! Voiced
| b
| (d)
| (d͜z)
| (d͜ʒ)
|
| (ɡ)
| (ɡʷ)
| style="background: white" |
|-
! colspan=2| Nasal
| m
| colspan=2| n
| colspan=2| (ɲ)
| (ŋ)
| (ŋʷ)
| //ƞ//
|-
! colspan=2 | Fricative
| (fʷ)
| ɬ
| s
| ʃ
|
|
|
|
|-
! colspan=2 | Sonorant
|
| colspan=2 | ɺ
|
| j
|
| w
| style="background: silver" | ɦ (zero?)
|}

Consonants in parentheses are thought to be loans, though the voiced obstruents at least are well-integrated and may be spreading to native roots.

Consonants with a medium grey background may follow a coda nasal in the preceding syllable (that is, they may be C₂ in a CVNCV pattern), whereas those on the lightest grey background may not. Alveolar /ǃ/ and lateral /ǁ/ (medium light grey) are not attested in this environment. However, it is suspected these gaps may be accidental, given that only two roots are known with dental /ǀ/ as C₂ after a nasal coda and that these sequences have not yet been investigated in the field. Moreover, the one known case of aspirated lateral /ƞǁʰ/, though its identity was clear when elicited, needs to be confirmed with additional speakers. A word with the same sequence reported in Tucker, Bryan & Woodburn could not be confirmed by Anyawire et al.

The voice-onset time of consonants is reduced after a nasal coda: [[tenuis]] consonants may be partially or completely voiced, and the aspiration of aspirated consonants may be reduced or lost. This is true of clicks as well as of plosives and affricates, and is reflected in both orthographies. There is only a two-way VOT distinction after a nasal coda. A /b/~/p/ distinction has not been found in post-nasal position despite /b/ being native.

Aspiration may only be distinct in the first several syllables of a word. Many speakers distinguish aspirated plosives in only a few words that contrast /k/ and /kʰ/, but maintain a robust aspiration distinction in affricates and clicks. The reason for this asymmetry is unknown.

The glottalized nasal clicks surface as [Ʞʔ] (where ⟨Ʞ⟩ stands for any click release) post-pausa and often as [ŋ͡nʔꞰ] intervocalically. Accounts differ as to whether there is voiceless nasal airflow preceding the click in post-pausa position.

Aspirated clicks may have a delayed and clearly audible posterior release, e.g. [Ʞʰ] ~ [Ʞkʰ]. The audible release has the same post-velar articulation as the ''k''-series of plosives.

The alveolar clicks sound rather palatal with some speakers, and tend to be weakly articulated, though, so far as is known, not slapped as they can be in Sandawe. (Reports of slapped [ǃ¡] clicks in Hadza by a UCLA team in the 1990s could not be confirmed with the UCLA archives, and it would appear that weak/flapped alveolar clicks were erroneously identified with slapped Sandawe clicks that the team had recorded a few weeks earlier.) When intervocalic, nasal alveolar /ⁿǃ/ may surface as, or nearly as, a doubly articulated pulmonic nasal [ŋ͡n]. The lateral clicks, on the other hand, are typically quite salient, and such phonetic reduction has not be noted. They appear to have the same post-alveolar to palatal place of articulation as the lateral affricates. The 'dental' (denti-alveolar) clicks are unremarkable, but are less common than the others.

Among the ejectives, /pʼ/ is uncommon and may be ideophonic. Most other ejectives vary between affricate and fricative realizations. Fricative allophens [sʼ, ʃʼ, xʼ, xʷʼ] have been noted for /t͜sʼ, t͜ʃʼ, k͜xʼ, k͜xʷʼ/. Velar /k͜xʼ/ and /k͜xʷʼ/ also have plosive allophones, [kʼ, kʷʼ], and /k͜xʼ/ has a lateral allophone [k͜ʟ̝̊ʼ]. Ejective /t͜sʼ/ may correspond phonologically to both the plosive and affricate (/t/ and /t͜s/) alveolar series of pulmonic consonants.

The palatal lateral affricates may be pronounced with an alveolar onset, e.g. [t͜ʎ̥˔], or without involving the front of the tongue, e.g. [c͜ʎ̥˔]. Speakers express no preference when hearing these articulations. The relatively uncommon fricative /ɬ/, however, is alveolar; a palatal articulation is not accepted. Given that the fricative may be pronounced as an affricate in some prosodic situations, this means that there is a three-way phonetic place contrast among laterals: [t͜ɬ] vs [t͜ʎ̥˔ ~ c͜ʎ̥˔] and [t͜ʎ̥˔ʼ ~ c͜ʎ̥˔ʼ] vs [k͜ʟ̝̊ʼ].

/ɺ/ is typically realized as [l] post-pausa and [ɾ] elsewhere, though [ɺ] is not uncommon in either position. It tends toward [l] when it occurs as both C₁ and C₂, as in /ɺoɺa/ (sp. rabbit).

[ɦ] and zero may be allophones. If so, and given that vowel-initial suffixes and clitics may elide a short stem-final vowel, it would be simplest to posit that the phoneme is zero and that [ɦ] is an allophone of zero, rather than that /ɦ/ is elided under some conditions. A predictive conditioning environment for the presence or absence of [ɦ] has not been discovered, but prosody may play a role; even vowel-initial suffixes and clitics may be realized with an initial [ɦ] when given contrastive prosody. Assimilation or bilingualism may be involved in the case of loanwords. For instance, an Isanzu loan for 'snake' was recorded as ''ihato'' /ʔiɦato/ at the beginning of the 20th century (and perhaps in an Isanzu-biligual area) but as ''iyato'' /ʔiato/ at the beginning of the 21st century in Mangola.

The glides /j/ and /w/ are not distinctive next to high front /i/ and back /u/, respectively, and rarely (or uncertainly) distinctive next to mid front /e/ and back /o/. It is possible that medial ''y'' and ''w'' are phonemically /i/ and /u/ and that initial ''y'' and ''w'' are /ʔi/ and /ʔu/. When they occur word-initially, purported /jV, wV/ often appear as [ʔi(j)V] and [ʔu(w)V]. This is true even of a ubiquitous sequential auxiliary (''yamo'' [jamo] ~ ''iamo'' [ʔiamo] in the 3msg posterior (past?) tense). [j] does occur in two object suffixes, and it is not clear if these can be explained away as /i/. In the anthropological and linguistic literature, glides ''y'' and ''w'' are often written between unlike vowels. For example, the 3msg non-past copula clitic ''-ha'' /ɦa/ is often transcribed as ''ya'' after a front vowel and as ''wa'' after a back vowel. (The copula sometimes contains a very clear [ɦ], and pre-pausa even [h] due to final devoicing, but often the /ɦ/ is realized as transitional murmur or possibly elided altogether.)

===== Marginal consonants =====

A labial click, variously reported as [ⁿʘʷ] or [ⁿʘˀ], is found in a single root, ''mcwa-'', that is mimetic for a kiss and often made with an accompanying kiss to the hand. ''Mcwa-'' may be allomorphic with ''ncuwa-'' /ⁿǀua/ 'kiss', with a dental click.

A trill [r] is used by some speakers in some words, such as ''karro'' /karo/ (hunting/sighting name for a female giraffe), perhaps reflecting the pronunciation of the word in the language it was borrowed from. It is replaced with /ɺ/ (''karo'' /kaɺo/) by other speakers.

An implosive [ɓ] is used by some speakers in some words, perhaps reflecting the pronunciation of the word in the source language, though in some instances it might co-occur with ejectives, which would be difficult to explain away as a loan (e.g. ''beggawuko'' /bekx’auko/ 'elephant', apparently [ɓekx’auko] in some recordings). It is replaced with /b/ by other speakers. Other implosives have not been noted.

A fricative [x] occurs lexicalized in an expletive, ''ahho'' [ʔaxo], where otherwise the root is ''akho'' /ʔakʰo/ 'genitals'. (/kʰ/ is commonly realized as [kx].)

Word-initial /mu/ and occasionally /mo/ are optionally realized as syllabic [m̩], for example in the common greeting ''mutana'' ~ ''mtana''. This is a Bantu alternation.

/v/ may occasionally be found in loans, as in mimetic ''vûvuko'' ~ ''fûfuko'' /vuːvuko ~ fuːfuko/ 'propeller toy', though it is normally replaced with /f/. [v] (or perhaps [β]) has been reported for /b/, for example in Bleek's transcriptions of the plural suffixes ''-bee'' and ''-bii'' as 've' and 'vi'.

===== Phonotactics =====
All clicks within a root must be the same, as in /ǀikiɺiƞǀa/ 'pinkie'. Although there is a tendency for click consonants and ejectives to occur as C₁, in a quarter of words with clicks the click occurs only as C₂, and in other words as both C₁ and C₂.

Clicks and ejectives may co-occur, though always in that order. When they co-occur, there appears to be some sibilant/lateral harmony, with a strong tendency for /t͜sʼ/ to occur after denti-alveolar clicks and for /c͜ʎ̥˔ʼ/ to occur after lateral clicks. (/k͜xʼ/ does not seem to be affected by the click, and is common after all places/types.)

When an aspirated consonant occurs more than once in a word, the first instance tends to deaspirate (as in [[Grassman's Law|Grassmann's]]/[[Katupha's Law]], though generally optional in Hadza). A coda N may block deaspiration, as in the allomorphs /peǃeǃʰe/ ~ /peƞǃʰeƞǃʰe/ 'to rush'. Repeated NC sequences may loose their nasal segment as well, as in /ƞtʰaɺaƞtʰaɺaʔabiʔi/ ~ /taɺaƞtʰaɺaʔabiʔi/ '(arrow) barbs'. It is not clear to what extent these patterns hold if the aspirated consonants are different rather than repeated phonemes.

===Swadesh lists===
Only roots are given below. For example, the word for 'name', given here as the root ''akhana'', is actually feminine plural ''akhanabee''.

====Wichmann & Holman basic 40-word list (ordered by stability)====

#louse ''ccamazzi'' /ⁿǀˀamat͜sʼi/<ref>cf. ''ccezze'' /ⁿǀˀet͜s’e/ 'tick'</ref>
#two ''piye'' /pie/, ''konxa'' /koⁿǁa/ (verb)
#water ''ati'' /ʔati/ (mpl; msg = 'rain, river')
#ear ''hajjapitchi'' /ɦat͜ʃ’apit͜ʃʰi/<ref>from ''hazzape'' /ɦat͜s’ape/ 'leaf'?</ref>
#to die ''taxxi'' /taⁿǁˀi/, ''misi'' /misi/ (Datooga?)
#I *one /ʔone/, */-ko/<ref>If *-ko-a > /-kʷa/ rather than *-kʷa-ʔV > /-koʔo/.</ref>
#liver ''xxe'' /ⁿǁˀe/
#eye ''akhwa'' /ʔakʷʰa/
#hand, arm ''ukhwa'' /ʔukʷʰa/
#hear ''nxaʼe'' /ⁿǁaʔe/
#tree ''zziti'' /t͜s’iti/
#fish ''ccama'' /ⁿǀˀama/, ''ccara'' /ⁿǀˀaɺa/
#name ''akhana'' /ʔakʰana/
#stone ''haqqa'' /ɦaⁿǃˀa/
#tooth ''aha'' /ʔaɦa/
#breast ''iriba'' /ʔiɺiba/ ('breasts, milk'. Cushitic); ''ggazza'' /k͜x’at͜s’a/ ('flesh at sternum')
#thou ''the'' /tʰe/, /-en-/ (m), /-n-/ (f)
#path ''yeke'' /jeke/
#bone ''midla'' /mic͜ʎ̥˔’a/ (cf. Dahalo)
#tongue ''ncata'' /ⁿǀata/
#skin ''ahu'' /ʔaɦu/
#night ''zzifi'' /t͜s’ifi/ (m; f = 'day')
#leaf ''hazzape'' /ɦat͜s’ape/
#rain = 'water' (msg = 'rain, river'; mpl = 'water')
#kill ''xô'' /ǁoː/
#blood ''athama'' /ʔatʰama/
#horn ''roo'' /ɺoʔo/
#person ''haza'' /ɦad͜za/ (human), ''unu'' /ʔunu/ (person)
#knee ''guringuri'' /ɡuɺiƞɡuɺi/ ~ ''gurunguri'' /ɡuɺuƞɡuɺi/ (Cushitic? pan-African)
#one ''itchâme'' /ʔit͜ʃʰaːme/
#nose ''intawe'' /ʔiƞtʰawe/
#full ''ggaʼe'' /k͜x’aʔe/, *cco- /ⁿǀˀo-/
#come ''za'' /d͜za/ (Bantu), ''botco'' /bot͜ʃo/ (stem of imperative)
#star ''ntsa'' /ƞt͜sʰa/, ''sa'' /sa/ (Cushitic?)<ref>Anyawire et al. (2013) only found ''ntsa''. Tucker et al. (1977) report ''sa'' 'star', and Woodburn confirms the form he knows does not have a nasal onset. /ƞ/ + /sa/ would generate /ƞt͜sʰa/. Indeed, speakers do not care if the latter is written ''ntsa'' or ''nsa''. There are several Cushitic loanwords that have an onset that varies as C ~ NC in Hadza where the source language is only reconstructed with C.</ref>
#mountain ''xxudle'' /ⁿǁˀuc͜ʎ̥˔’e/
#fire ''zzoko'' /t͜s’oko/
#we (exclusive) ''ô'' /ʔoː/, /-j-/
#to drink ''fa'' /fʷa/
#to see ''chî'' /ǀʰiː/ ~ ''cî'' /ǀiː/
#bark ''heggwa'' /ɦek͜xʷ’a/
#new ''zana'' /d͜zana/<ref>from ''za'' 'come'?</ref>
#dog ''xhaano'' /ǁʰaʔano/, ''tîngi'' /tiːƞki/
#sun ''isho'' /ʔiʃo/

===Notes===
<references/>

===Bibliography===

* Mariamu Anyawire, G.G. Bala, Kirk Miller (ed.) & Bonny Sands (2013). ''A Hadza Lexicon'' (ms).
* Roger Blench (2008). [https://web.archive.org/web/20110721180216/http://www.rogerblench.info/Language%20data/Khoesan/Blench%20paper%20Riezlern%202008.pdf Hadza Animal Names.] Paper presented at the 3rd International Symposium on Khoisan Languages and Linguistics, Riezlern, 7–9 July 2008.
* Niklas Edenmyr (2004). [https://web.archive.org/web/20070706040409/http://www.african.gu.se/aa/pdfs/aa04003.pdf The semantics of Hadza gender assignment: a few notes from the field.] ''Africa & Asia'', no. 4, Department of Oriental and African languages, Göteborg University, 3–19.
* Edward Elderkin (1978). Loans in Hadza: internal evidence from consonants. ''Occasional Papers'' 3, Dar es Salaam.
* Peter Ladefoged, Ian Maddieson & Bonny Sands (1991). [http://archive.phonetics.ucla.edu/Language/HTS/hts.html Hadza wordlist and sound files]. UCLA Phonetics Lab Archive.
* ———— (1993). [https://www.academia.edu/17743030/The_phonetic_structures_of_Hadza The Phonetic Structures of Hadza.] In [http://repositories.cdlib.org/uclaling/wpp/No84/ ''UCLA Working Papers in Phonetics'' No. 84: ''Fieldwork Studies in Targeted Languages'',] 67–87.
* Kirk Miller (2008). [https://www.academia.edu/36533859/Hadza_grammar_notes Hadza Grammar Notes.] Paper presented at the 3rd International Symposium on Khoisan Languages and Linguistics, Riezlern, 7–9 July 2008.
* ———— (2009). [https://www.academia.edu/36533860/Highlights_of_Hadza_Fieldwork Highlights of Hadza fieldwork.] Paper presented at the 83rd Annual Meeting of the Linguistic Society of America, San Francisco, 8–11 January 2009.
* ———— (2016). Hadza Kinship Terms. In Shah & Brenzinger, eds., ''Khoisan Languages and Linguistics: Proceedings of the 5th International Symposium, July 13–17, 2014, Riezlern/Kleinwalsertal.'' Cologne: Rüdiger Köppe, 277–333.
* Bonny Sands (1998). The Linguistic Relationship between Hadza and Khoisan. In Schladt, Matthias (ed.) ''Language, Identity, and Conceptualization among the Khoisan'' (Quellen zur Khoisan-Forschung Vol. 15), Cologne: Rüdiger Köppe, 265–283.
* ———— (2013). Phonetics and phonology: Hadza; Tonology: Hadza; Morphology: Hadza; Syntax: Hadza. In Rainer Vossen, ed., ''The Khoesan Languages''. Oxford: Routledge.
*Sergei Starostin. [http://starling.rinet.ru/cgi-bin/response.cgi?root=new100&morpho=0&basename=new100\hdz\hdz&limit=-1 Hadza basic lexicon.] Global Lexicostatistical Database. [much of the parsing is speculation, and Bleek's posthumous data is unreliable]
* A.N. Tucker, M.A. Bryan & James Woodburn as co-author for Hadza (1977). The East African Click Languages: A Phonetic Comparison. In J.G. Moehlig, Franz Rottland, Bernd Heine, eds, ''Zur Sprachgeschichte und Ethnohistorie in Afrika.'' Berlin: Dietrich Diener.

[[Category:En]]
[[Category:Single language]]

Hadza

2021-01-05T03:44:29Z

Kirk Miller: /* Phonotactics */

{{InfoboxLanguage
|Language = Hadza
|Autonym = ''Haza, hazane''
|Pronunciation = ɦad͜za
|Ethn15name = Hadza
|Countries = Tanzania
|OfficialLg = none
|OLACname = Hadza
|WALSLoc = 3°45′ S, 35°10′ E
|Speakers = 1,000
|Family = [[isolate]]
|Genus = Hadza
|WritingSyst = none
|ISO3 = hts
}}

Hadza is a language isolate of Tanzania.

=== Location and Speakers ===
Hadza is spoken along the entire eastern shore of alkaline Lake Eyasi, which lies at the base of the Serengeti Plateau in central Tanzania, from Mount Oldeani in the north (just south of Ngorongoro Crater) to the Isanzu agricultural areas in the south. The Hadza do not live at altitudes much above 1500 meters, as they do not build shelters that will ward off the night chill at higher elevations.

There is a small population of Hadza to the west of the lake, in ''Dunduhina'' /duƞtuhina/<ref>This article uses the old IPA letter for a moraic nasal, ⟨ƞ⟩, which was retired because it has no specific phonetic value. In Hadza, the moraic nasal is homorganic with a following consonant.</ref> 'Sukumaland', but their number seems to be decreasing and many only speak Sukuma and Swahili.

There are approximately 1,000 speakers of Hadza, most now bilingual in Swahili. Other second languages include [[Isanzu]] in the south, [[Sukuma]] in the west, and to a lesser degree [[Datooga]] in the center (e.g. near the Yaeda Valley to the southeast of the lake) and [[Iraqw]] on the margins of the Iraqw highlands. The northern Hadza area, around the town of Mangola, was largely monolingual until the introduction of Standard Swahili after independence, though there are loanwords from colonial-era 'upcountry' Swahili.

As of 2005, about 40% of Hadza lived as full-time hunter-gatherers, and language transmission was robust in the areas east of the lake, but since then there have been reports of children speaking Swahili east of the lake, perhaps due to the influx of ''Dunduhinabee'' abandoning their territory in the west.

=== Classification ===
Hadza is a [[language isolate]]. Greenberg classified it as [[Khoisan]] due to its use of [[click consonant]]s. If it were not for the clicks, it's likely that Hadza would have been classified as [[Cushitic]]. Hadza and Sandawe have very similar phonetic inventories and phonotactics, suggesting an old sprachbund. However, the only detected commonalities in vocabulary are old Cushitic loans or perhaps loans that passed from one to the other through Cushitic. Much of the borrowed Cushitic vocabulary is consistent with reconstructions of proto-West Rift.

=== Dialects ===
There do not appear to be any dialects of Hadza, presumably due to the mobility of its speakers. There are some regional differences of vocabulary, however, and speakers note that many more Bantu loans are used in the south.

=== Name ===
"Hadza" is the most common name in the literature. ''Haza'' /ɦad͜za/ simply means 'human being'. The derivative "Hadzane" (/ɦad͜zane/ 'in the manner of the people') is sometimes encountered as the name of the language. The feminine plural ''hazabee'' /ɦad͜zabeʔe/ may be used for the people, though it is usually spelled "Hadzabe" due to devoicing of the final vowel. (The feminine is the inclusive gender in the plural.) "Hadzapi" is the masculine-plural copular form ''hazaphii'' /ɦad͜zapʰiʔi/. "Hatza" and "Hatsa" are older German spellings.

"Tindiga" is from the Swahili name, ''watindiga'' 'people of the marsh grass', presumably named for the large spring in Mangola. The forms ''wahadza'', ''kihadza'' are found instead of ''watindiga'', ''kitindiga'' in recent Swahili publications, but the Hadza do not consider ''watindiga'' to be pejorative. "Kindiga" may be a cognate from one of the local Bantu languages. "Kangeju" (pronounced ''Kangeyu'') is an obsolete German name of unclear origin. The name "Wahi" (pronounced ''Vahi'') found for the western Hadza in Kohl-Larsen is a Sukuma name for the Hadza.

=== Orthography ===
Hadza does not have a written tradition. Two orthographies have seen recent use: the phonetic transcription of Tucker, Bryan & Woodburn (1977), used with some modification by Woodburn and other anthropologists, and the practical orthography of Anyawire et al. (2013). As it is based on the IPA, the Woodburn transcription is more accessible to linguists, while the Anyawire orthography is closer to Sandawe and other written languages of Tanzania. There is evidently some political controversy over the choice of orthography, with Hadza reporting they have been told that if they use the Anyawire orthography they will loose their land. There are two motivations for the Anyawire orthography: the perception that the IPA click letters of the Woodburn transcription portray the Hadza language as bizarre, when the Hadza people already have difficulties with being marginalized and a perception that they are not proper human beings, and the practical issue that the ubiquitous apostrophe of the Woodburn transcription makes it impractical for extended use. The apostrophes are generally omitted by those Hadza who have learned the Woodburn system, with the resulting texts often being unintelligible even to their authors; when the apostrophes are written, they greatly slow down the pace of writing. In the Anyawire orthography, doubled consonants are used for glottalized/ejective consonants and doubled vowels for glottal stop, with the apostrophe only being used for the Swahili convention of ⟨ngʼ⟩ for borrowed /ŋ/.

The Anyawire orthography is used alongside the IPA in this article for accessibility with the Anyawire dictionary. For clarity, an apostrophe will be retained in this article for glottal stop between unlike vowels, e.g. ⟨ae⟩ /ae/ vs ⟨aʼe⟩ /aʔe/. In practice, the Hadza are more likely to write an epenthetic glide between vowels in hiatus, e.g. ⟨aye⟩ for /ae/ vs ⟨ae⟩ for /aʔe/.

=== Phonology ===
Hadza syllable structure is limited to CVN in native words. There are no vowel-initial roots, unless ''h'' is analyzed as an allophone of zero. It is possible that nasal codas are found primarily in loan words and ideophones. This N surfaces as a homorganic nasal when a following consonant has a place of articulation for it to assimilate to, and as nasalization of the vowel before a glottal consonant (glottal stop and ''h''/zero) and pre-pausa. Coda N also appears allophonically before voiced nasal and glottalized nasal clicks. A moraic (syllabic?) nasal is also found word-initially in loans from Bantu and Datooga (and, due to metathesis, in a few Cushitic loans), in which case it may have a different pitch than the following vowel, or may be preceded by an epenthetic vowel; such nasals are analyzed here as NCV sequences rather than as a series of prenasalized consonants. Phonetically, initial #NCV may also occur in shortened forms when the initial hV syllable of a #hVC₂V-shaped word is elided and C₂ is a glottalized nasal click.

==== Stress and tone ====
It is not yet clear whether Hadza has phonemic tone. If it does, it is likely to have a minimal system of the kind often called [[pitch accent]]. Salient stress and pitch are not restricted to a particular syllable; their position may vary between elicitations of at least some words pronounced in isolation, but in some words pitch appears to be fixed. Heavy syllables tend to attract stress but again the pattern is not absolute. There are no known minimal pairs, grammatical or lexical, for stress or pitch. Minimal pairs claimed in the literature have turned out to either not be distinct in pronunciation, or to not be minimal pairs (e.g., one of the words may have an additional morpheme such as the habitual suffix ''-e'', which frequently reduces to vowel length and attracts stress). It may be that some loanwords retain the tone of their source language.

==== Vowels ====
There are five phonemic vowels, which are close to cardinal [a e i o u].

{| class="wikitable" style=text-align:center
|+Hadza vowels
| style="background: white" |
! Front
! Central
! Back
|-
! High
| i || || u
|-
! Mid
| e || || o
|-
! Low
| || a ||
|}

Phonetic nasal vowels, which are not common except before a consonant, are here analyzed as /VN/.

Phonetic long vowels are often sequences, as in ''kaha'' [kaː] ~ [kaɦa] 'to climb'. In some words, however, there is no allomorph with [ɦ], as in ''bôko'' [boːko] 'she' (forms a minimal pair with ''boko'' [boko] 'to be ill') and ''sêta'' [seːta] 'moon'. There is no known minimal set to establish long /Vː/ as distinct from a /VV/ sequence.

The mid vowels /e, o/ tend to rise when a high vowel, /i, u/, occurs in the following syllable, and /e, o/ may merge with /i, u/ in that position. However, such assimilation tends to be optional, even in suffixed pronouns such as ''onebii'' [ʔone̝biʔi] ~ ''unibii'' [ʔunibiʔi] 'we' (masculine, inclusive).

/u/ is relatively uncommon except in loans or due to vowel-height assimilation. /u/ does not occur at all in grammatical morphemes unless the morpheme has a second syllable with vowel /i/, and so is presumably a historical *o in such cases.

Vowels tend to devoice in pre-pausa position after a voiceless consonant. In the highly frequent pattern of word-final -V₁ʔV₁ (where the two vowels are the same, a pattern found in half of all grammatical suffixes and clitics though not frequently elsewhere), the vowel and preceding glottal stop tend to elide completely when pre-pausa, and either elide or reduce to a long vowel before a suffix/clitic or another word.

==== Consonants ====
Hadza has at least 50 productive syllable onsets and several other marginal consonants.

{| class="wikitable" style=text-align:center
|+Principal Hadza consonants (Parentheses: loans. Dark background: may follow a nasal coda.)
! rowspan=2 colspan=2 |
! rowspan=2 | Labial
! rowspan=2 colspan=2 | (Denti-) alveolar
! rowspan=2 | (Post-) alveolar
! rowspan=2 | Palatal
! colspan=2 | Post-velar
! rowspan=2 | Glottal/ placeless
|- class=small
! plain
! labialized
|-
! rowspan=4 | Click
! Aspirated
|
| colspan=2 style="background: silver" |ᵏǀʰ
| style="background: silver" |ᵏǃʰ
| style="background: LightGray" |ᵏǁʰ
| colspan=3 rowspan=4 style="background: white" |
|-
! Tenuis
|
| colspan=2 style="background: silver" |ᵏǀ
| style="background: Gainsboro" |ᵏǃ
| style="background: Gainsboro" |ᵏǁ
|-
! Voiced nasal
|
| colspan=2 | ⁿǀ
| ⁿǃ
| ⁿǁ
|-
! Glottalized nasal
|
| colspan=2 | ⁿǀˀ
| ⁿǃˀ
| ⁿǁˀ
|-
! rowspan=5 | Plosive / affricate
|-
! Ejective
| pʼ
| colspan=2| t͜sʼ
| t͜ʃʼ
| c͜ʎ̥˔ʼ
| k͜xʼ
| k͜xʷʼ
| style="background: white" |
|-
! Aspirated
| style="background: silver" |pʰ
| style="background: silver" |tʰ
| style="background: silver" |t͜sʰ
| style="background: silver" |t͜ʃʰ
| c͜ʎ̥˔ʰ
| style="background: silver" |kʰ
| style="background: silver" |kʷʰ
|
|-
! Tenuis
| style="background: silver" |p
| style="background: silver" |t
| style="background: silver" |t͜s
| style="background: silver" |t͜ʃ
| c͜ʎ̥˔
| style="background: silver" |k
| style="background: silver" |kʷ
| style="background: silver" |ʔ
|-
! Voiced
| b
| (d)
| (d͜z)
| (d͜ʒ)
|
| (ɡ)
| (ɡʷ)
| style="background: white" |
|-
! colspan=2| Nasal
| m
| colspan=2| n
| colspan=2| (ɲ)
| (ŋ)
| (ŋʷ)
| //ƞ//
|-
! colspan=2 | Fricative
| (fʷ)
| ɬ
| s
| ʃ
|
|
|
|
|-
! colspan=2 | Sonorant
|
| colspan=2 | ɺ
|
| j
|
| w
| style="background: silver" | ɦ (zero?)
|}

Consonants in parentheses are thought to be loans, though the voiced obstruents at least are well-integrated and may be spreading to native roots.

Consonants with a medium grey background may follow a coda nasal in the preceding syllable (that is, they may be C₂ in a CVNCV pattern), whereas those on the lightest grey background may not. Alveolar /ǃ/ and lateral /ǁ/ (medium light grey) are not attested in this environment. However, it is suspected these gaps may be accidental, given that only two roots are known with dental /ǀ/ as C₂ after a nasal coda and that these sequences have not yet been investigated in the field. Moreover, the one known case of aspirated lateral /ƞǁʰ/, though its identity was clear when elicited, needs to be confirmed with additional speakers. A word with the same sequence reported in Tucker, Bryan & Woodburn could not be confirmed by Anyawire et al.

The voice-onset time of consonants is reduced after a nasal coda: [[tenuis]] consonants may be partially or completely voiced, and the aspiration of aspirated consonants may be reduced or lost. This is true of clicks as well as of plosives and affricates, and is reflected in both orthographies. There is only a two-way VOT distinction after a nasal coda. A /b/~/p/ distinction has not been found in post-nasal position despite /b/ being native.

Aspiration may only be distinct in the first several syllables of a word. Many speakers distinguish aspirated plosives in only a few words that contrast /k/ and /kʰ/, but maintain a robust aspiration distinction in affricates and clicks. The reason for this asymmetry is unknown.

The glottalized nasal clicks surface as [Ʞʔ] (where ⟨Ʞ⟩ stands for any click release) post-pausa and often as [ŋ͡nʔꞰ] intervocalically. Accounts differ as to whether there is voiceless nasal airflow preceding the click in post-pausa position.

Aspirated clicks may have a delayed and clearly audible posterior release, e.g. [Ʞʰ] ~ [Ʞkʰ]. The audible release has the same post-velar articulation as the ''k''-series of plosives.

The alveolar clicks sound rather palatal with some speakers, and tend to be weakly articulated, though, so far as is known, not slapped as they can be in Sandawe. (Reports of slapped [ǃ¡] clicks in Hadza by a UCLA team in the 1990s could not be confirmed with the UCLA archives, and it would appear that weak/flapped alveolar clicks were erroneously identified with slapped Sandawe clicks that the team had recorded a few weeks earlier.) When intervocalic, nasal alveolar /ⁿǃ/ may surface as, or nearly as, a doubly articulated pulmonic nasal [ŋ͡n]. The lateral clicks, on the other hand, are typically quite salient, and such phonetic reduction has not be noted. They appear to have the same post-alveolar to palatal place of articulation as the lateral affricates. The 'dental' (denti-alveolar) clicks are unremarkable, but are less common than the others.

Among the ejectives, /pʼ/ is uncommon and may be ideophonic. Most other ejectives vary between affricate and fricative realizations. Fricative allophens [sʼ, ʃʼ, xʼ, xʷʼ] have been noted for /t͜sʼ, t͜ʃʼ, k͜xʼ, k͜xʷʼ/. Velar /k͜xʼ/ and /k͜xʷʼ/ also have plosive allophones, [kʼ, kʷʼ], and /k͜xʼ/ has a lateral allophone [k͜ʟ̝̊ʼ]. Ejective /t͜sʼ/ may correspond phonologically to both the plosive and affricate (/t/ and /t͜s/) alveolar series of pulmonic consonants.

The palatal lateral affricates may be pronounced with an alveolar onset, e.g. [t͜ʎ̥˔], or without involving the front of the tongue, e.g. [c͜ʎ̥˔]. Speakers express no preference when hearing these articulations. The relatively uncommon fricative /ɬ/, however, is alveolar; a palatal articulation is not accepted. Given that the fricative may be pronounced as an affricate in some prosodic situations, this means that there is a three-way phonetic place contrast among laterals: [t͜ɬ] vs [t͜ʎ̥˔ ~ c͜ʎ̥˔] and [t͜ʎ̥˔ʼ ~ c͜ʎ̥˔ʼ] vs [k͜ʟ̝̊ʼ].

/ɺ/ is typically realized as [l] post-pausa and [ɾ] elsewhere, though [ɺ] is not uncommon in either position. It tends toward [l] when it occurs as both C₁ and C₂, as in /ɺoɺa/ (sp. rabbit).

[ɦ] and zero may be allophones. If so, and given that vowel-initial suffixes and clitics may elide a short stem-final vowel, it would be simplest to posit that the phoneme is zero and that [ɦ] is an allophone of zero, rather than that /ɦ/ is elided under some conditions. A predictive conditioning environment for the presence or absence of [ɦ] has not been discovered, but prosody may play a role; even vowel-initial suffixes and clitics may be realized with an initial [ɦ] when given contrastive prosody. Assimilation or bilingualism may be involved in the case of loanwords. For instance, an Isanzu loan for 'snake' was recorded as ''ihato'' /ʔiɦato/ at the beginning of the 20th century (and perhaps in an Isanzu-biligual area) but as ''iyato'' /ʔiato/ at the beginning of the 21st century in Mangola.

The glides /j/ and /w/ are not distinctive next to high front /i/ and back /u/, respectively, and rarely (or uncertainly) distinctive next to mid front /e/ and back /o/. It is possible that medial ''y'' and ''w'' are phonemically /i/ and /u/ and that initial ''y'' and ''w'' are /ʔi/ and /ʔu/. When they occur word-initially, purported /jV, wV/ often appear as [ʔi(j)V] and [ʔu(w)V]. This is true even of a ubiquitous sequential auxiliary (''yamo'' [jamo] ~ ''iamo'' [ʔiamo] in the 3msg posterior (past?) tense). [j] does occur in two object suffixes, and it is not clear if these can be explained away as /i/. In the anthropological and linguistic literature, glides ''y'' and ''w'' are often written between unlike vowels. For example, the 3msg non-past copula clitic ''-ha'' /ɦa/ is often transcribed as ''ya'' after a front vowel and as ''wa'' after a back vowel. (The copula sometimes contains a very clear [ɦ], and pre-pausa even [h] due to final devoicing, but often the /ɦ/ is realized as transitional murmur or possibly elided altogether.)

===== Marginal consonants =====

A labial click, variously reported as [ⁿʘʷ] or [ⁿʘˀ], is found in a single root, ''mcwa-'', that is mimetic for a kiss and often made with an accompanying kiss to the hand. ''Mcwa-'' may be allomorphic with ''ncuwa-'' /ⁿǀua/ 'kiss', with a dental click.

A trill [r] is used by some speakers in some words, such as ''karro'' /karo/ (hunting/sighting name for a female giraffe), perhaps reflecting the pronunciation of the word in the language it was borrowed from. It is replaced with /ɺ/ (''karo'' /kaɺo/) by other speakers.

An implosive [ɓ] is used by some speakers in some words, perhaps reflecting the pronunciation of the word in the source language, though in some instances it might co-occur with ejectives, which would be difficult to explain away as a loan (e.g. ''beggawuko'' /bekx’auko/ 'elephant', apparently [ɓekx’auko] in some recordings). It is replaced with /b/ by other speakers. Other implosives have not been noted.

A fricative [x] occurs lexicalized in an expletive, ''ahho'' [ʔaxo], where otherwise the root is ''akho'' /ʔakʰo/ 'genitals'. (/kʰ/ is commonly realized as [kx].)

Word-initial /mu/ and occasionally /mo/ are optionally realized as syllabic [m̩], for example in the common greeting ''mutana'' ~ ''mtana''. This is a Bantu alternation.

/v/ may occasionally be found in loans, as in mimetic ''vûvuko'' ~ ''fûfuko'' /vuːvuko ~ fuːfuko/ 'propeller toy', though it is normally replaced with /f/. [v] (or perhaps [β]) has been reported for /b/, for example in Bleek's transcriptions of the plural suffixes ''-bee'' and ''-bii'' as 've' and 'vi'.

===== Phonotactics =====
All clicks within a root must be the same, as in /ǀikiɺiƞǀa/ 'pinkie'. Although there is a tendency for click consonants and ejectives to occur as C₁, in a quarter of words with clicks the click occurs only as C₂, and in other words as both C₁ and C₂.

Clicks and ejectives may co-occur, though always in that order. When they co-occur, there appears to be some sibilant/lateral harmony, with a strong tendency for /t͜sʼ/ to occur after denti-alveolar clicks and for /c͜ʎ̥˔ʼ/ to occur after lateral clicks. (/k͜xʼ/ does not seem to be affected by the click, and is common after all places/types.)

When an aspirated consonant occurs more than once in a word, the first instance tends to deaspirate (as in [[Grassman's Law|Grassmann's]]/[[Katupha's Law]], though generally optional in Hadza). A coda N may block deaspiration, as in the allomorphs /peǃeǃʰe/ ~ /peƞǃʰeƞǃʰe/ 'to rush'. Repeated NC sequences may loose their nasal segment as well, as in /ƞtʰaɺaƞtʰaɺaʔabiʔi/ ~ /taɺaƞtʰaɺaʔabiʔi/ '(arrow) barbs'. It is not clear to what extent these patterns hold if the aspirated consonants are different rather than repeated phonemes.

===Swadesh lists===
Only roots are given below. For example, the word for 'name', given here as the root ''akhana'', is actually feminine plural ''akhanabee''.

====Wichmann & Holman basic 40-word list (ordered by stability)====

#louse ''ccamazzi'' /ⁿǀˀamat͜sʼi/<ref>cf. ''ccezze'' /ⁿǀˀet͜s’e/ 'tick'</ref>
#two ''piye'' /pie/, ''konxa'' /koⁿǁa/ (verb)
#water ''ati'' /ʔati/ (mpl; msg = 'rain, river')
#ear ''hajjapitchi'' /ɦat͜ʃ’apit͜ʃʰi/<ref>from ''hazzape'' /ɦat͜s’ape/ 'leaf'?</ref>
#to die ''taxxi'' /taⁿǁˀi/, ''misi'' /misi/ (Datooga?)
#I *one /ʔone/, */-ko/<ref>If *-ko-a > /-kʷa/ rather than *-kʷa-ʔV > /-koʔo/.</ref>
#liver ''xxe'' /ⁿǁˀe/
#eye ''akhwa'' /ʔakʷʰa/
#hand, arm ''ukhwa'' /ʔukʷʰa/
#hear ''nxaʼe'' /ⁿǁaʔe/
#tree ''zziti'' /t͜s’iti/
#fish ''ccama'' /ⁿǀˀama/, ''ccara'' /ⁿǀˀaɺa/
#name ''akhana'' /ʔakʰana/
#stone ''haqqa'' /ɦaⁿǃˀa/
#tooth ''aha'' /ʔaɦa/
#breast ''iriba'' /ʔiɺiba/ ('breasts, milk'. Cushitic); ''ggazza'' /k͜x’at͜s’a/ ('flesh at sternum')
#thou ''the'' /tʰe/, /-en-/ (m), /-n-/ (f)
#path ''yeke'' /jeke/
#bone ''midla'' /mic͜ʎ̥˔’a/ (cf. Dahalo)
#tongue ''ncata'' /ⁿǀata/
#skin ''ahu'' /ʔaɦu/
#night ''zzifi'' /t͜s’ifi/ (m; f = 'day')
#leaf ''hazzape'' /ɦat͜s’ape/
#rain = 'water' (msg = 'rain, river'; mpl = 'water')
#kill ''xô'' /ǁoː/
#blood ''athama'' /ʔatʰama/
#horn ''roo'' /ɺoʔo/
#person ''haza'' /ɦad͜za/ (human), ''unu'' /ʔunu/ (person)
#knee ''guringuri'' /ɡuɺiƞɡuɺi/ ~ ''gurunguri'' /ɡuɺuƞɡuɺi/ (Cushitic? pan-African)
#one ''itchâme'' /ʔit͜ʃʰaːme/
#nose ''intawe'' /ʔiƞtʰawe/
#full ''ggaʼe'' /k͜x’aʔe/, *cco- /ⁿǀˀo-/
#come ''za'' /d͜za/ (Bantu), ''botco'' /bot͜ʃo/ (stem of imperative)
#star ''ntsa'' /ƞt͜sʰa/, ''sa'' /sa/ (Cushitic?)<ref>Anyawire et al. (2013) only found ''ntsa''. Tucker et al. (1977) report ''sa'' 'star', and Woodburn confirms the form he knows does not have a nasal onset. /ƞ/ + /sa/ would generate /ƞt͜sʰa/. Indeed, speakers do not care if the latter is written ''ntsa'' or ''nsa''. There are several Cushitic loanwords that have an onset that varies as C ~ NC in Hadza where the source language is only reconstructed with C.</ref>
#mountain ''xxudle'' /ⁿǁˀuc͜ʎ̥˔’e/
#fire ''zzoko'' /t͜s’oko/
#we (exclusive) ''ô'' /ʔoː/, /-j-/
#to drink ''fa'' /fʷa/
#to see ''chî'' /ǀʰiː/ ~ ''cî'' /ǀiː/
#bark ''heggwa'' /ɦek͜xʷ’a/
#new ''zana'' /d͜zana/<ref>from ''za'' 'come'?</ref>
#dog ''xhaano'' /ǁʰaʔano/, ''tîngi'' /tiːƞki/
#sun ''isho'' /ʔiʃo/

===Notes===
<references/>

===Bibliography===

* Mariamu Anyawire, G.G. Bala, Kirk Miller (ed.) & Bonny Sands (2013). ''A Hadza Lexicon'' (ms).
* Roger Blench (2008). [https://web.archive.org/web/20110721180216/http://www.rogerblench.info/Language%20data/Khoesan/Blench%20paper%20Riezlern%202008.pdf Hadza Animal Names.] Paper presented at the 3rd International Symposium on Khoisan Languages and Linguistics, Riezlern, 7–9 July 2008.
* Niklas Edenmyr (2004). [https://web.archive.org/web/20070706040409/http://www.african.gu.se/aa/pdfs/aa04003.pdf The semantics of Hadza gender assignment: a few notes from the field.] ''Africa & Asia'', no. 4, Department of Oriental and African languages, Göteborg University, 3–19.
* Edward Elderkin (1978). Loans in Hadza: internal evidence from consonants. ''Occasional Papers'' 3, Dar es Salaam.
* Peter Ladefoged, Ian Maddieson & Bonny Sands (1991). [http://archive.phonetics.ucla.edu/Language/HTS/hts.html Hadza wordlist and sound files]. UCLA Phonetics Lab Archive.
* ———— (1993). [https://www.academia.edu/17743030/The_phonetic_structures_of_Hadza The Phonetic Structures of Hadza.] In [http://repositories.cdlib.org/uclaling/wpp/No84/ ''UCLA Working Papers in Phonetics'' No. 84: ''Fieldwork Studies in Targeted Languages'',] 67–87.
* Kirk Miller (2008). [https://www.academia.edu/36533859/Hadza_grammar_notes Hadza Grammar Notes.] Paper presented at the 3rd International Symposium on Khoisan Languages and Linguistics, Riezlern, 7–9 July 2008.
* ———— (2009). [https://www.academia.edu/36533860/Highlights_of_Hadza_Fieldwork Highlights of Hadza fieldwork.] Paper presented at the 83rd Annual Meeting of the Linguistic Society of America, San Francisco, 8–11 January 2009.
* ———— (2016). Hadza Kinship Terms. In Shah & Brenzinger, eds., ''Khoisan Languages and Linguistics: Proceedings of the 5th International Symposium, July 13–17, 2014, Riezlern/Kleinwalsertal.'' Cologne: Rüdiger Köppe, 277–333.
* Bonny Sands (1998). The Linguistic Relationship between Hadza and Khoisan. In Schladt, Matthias (ed.) ''Language, Identity, and Conceptualization among the Khoisan'' (Quellen zur Khoisan-Forschung Vol. 15), Cologne: Rüdiger Köppe, 265–283.
* ———— (2013). Phonetics and phonology: Hadza; Tonology: Hadza; Morphology: Hadza; Syntax: Hadza. In Rainer Vossen, ed., ''The Khoesan Languages''. Oxford: Routledge.
*Sergei Starostin. [http://starling.rinet.ru/cgi-bin/response.cgi?root=new100&morpho=0&basename=new100\hdz\hdz&limit=-1 Hadza basic lexicon.] Global Lexicostatistical Database. [much of the parsing is speculation, and Bleek's posthumous data is unreliable]
* A.N. Tucker, M.A. Bryan & James Woodburn as co-author for Hadza (1977). The East African Click Languages: A Phonetic Comparison. In J.G. Moehlig, Franz Rottland, Bernd Heine, eds, ''Zur Sprachgeschichte und Ethnohistorie in Afrika.'' Berlin: Dietrich Diener.

[[Category:En]]
[[Category:Single language]]

Hadza

2021-01-05T03:43:05Z

Kirk Miller: /* Phonotactics */

{{InfoboxLanguage
|Language = Hadza
|Autonym = ''Haza, hazane''
|Pronunciation = ɦad͜za
|Ethn15name = Hadza
|Countries = Tanzania
|OfficialLg = none
|OLACname = Hadza
|WALSLoc = 3°45′ S, 35°10′ E
|Speakers = 1,000
|Family = [[isolate]]
|Genus = Hadza
|WritingSyst = none
|ISO3 = hts
}}

Hadza is a language isolate of Tanzania.

=== Location and Speakers ===
Hadza is spoken along the entire eastern shore of alkaline Lake Eyasi, which lies at the base of the Serengeti Plateau in central Tanzania, from Mount Oldeani in the north (just south of Ngorongoro Crater) to the Isanzu agricultural areas in the south. The Hadza do not live at altitudes much above 1500 meters, as they do not build shelters that will ward off the night chill at higher elevations.

There is a small population of Hadza to the west of the lake, in ''Dunduhina'' /duƞtuhina/<ref>This article uses the old IPA letter for a moraic nasal, ⟨ƞ⟩, which was retired because it has no specific phonetic value. In Hadza, the moraic nasal is homorganic with a following consonant.</ref> 'Sukumaland', but their number seems to be decreasing and many only speak Sukuma and Swahili.

There are approximately 1,000 speakers of Hadza, most now bilingual in Swahili. Other second languages include [[Isanzu]] in the south, [[Sukuma]] in the west, and to a lesser degree [[Datooga]] in the center (e.g. near the Yaeda Valley to the southeast of the lake) and [[Iraqw]] on the margins of the Iraqw highlands. The northern Hadza area, around the town of Mangola, was largely monolingual until the introduction of Standard Swahili after independence, though there are loanwords from colonial-era 'upcountry' Swahili.

As of 2005, about 40% of Hadza lived as full-time hunter-gatherers, and language transmission was robust in the areas east of the lake, but since then there have been reports of children speaking Swahili east of the lake, perhaps due to the influx of ''Dunduhinabee'' abandoning their territory in the west.

=== Classification ===
Hadza is a [[language isolate]]. Greenberg classified it as [[Khoisan]] due to its use of [[click consonant]]s. If it were not for the clicks, it's likely that Hadza would have been classified as [[Cushitic]]. Hadza and Sandawe have very similar phonetic inventories and phonotactics, suggesting an old sprachbund. However, the only detected commonalities in vocabulary are old Cushitic loans or perhaps loans that passed from one to the other through Cushitic. Much of the borrowed Cushitic vocabulary is consistent with reconstructions of proto-West Rift.

=== Dialects ===
There do not appear to be any dialects of Hadza, presumably due to the mobility of its speakers. There are some regional differences of vocabulary, however, and speakers note that many more Bantu loans are used in the south.

=== Name ===
"Hadza" is the most common name in the literature. ''Haza'' /ɦad͜za/ simply means 'human being'. The derivative "Hadzane" (/ɦad͜zane/ 'in the manner of the people') is sometimes encountered as the name of the language. The feminine plural ''hazabee'' /ɦad͜zabeʔe/ may be used for the people, though it is usually spelled "Hadzabe" due to devoicing of the final vowel. (The feminine is the inclusive gender in the plural.) "Hadzapi" is the masculine-plural copular form ''hazaphii'' /ɦad͜zapʰiʔi/. "Hatza" and "Hatsa" are older German spellings.

"Tindiga" is from the Swahili name, ''watindiga'' 'people of the marsh grass', presumably named for the large spring in Mangola. The forms ''wahadza'', ''kihadza'' are found instead of ''watindiga'', ''kitindiga'' in recent Swahili publications, but the Hadza do not consider ''watindiga'' to be pejorative. "Kindiga" may be a cognate from one of the local Bantu languages. "Kangeju" (pronounced ''Kangeyu'') is an obsolete German name of unclear origin. The name "Wahi" (pronounced ''Vahi'') found for the western Hadza in Kohl-Larsen is a Sukuma name for the Hadza.

=== Orthography ===
Hadza does not have a written tradition. Two orthographies have seen recent use: the phonetic transcription of Tucker, Bryan & Woodburn (1977), used with some modification by Woodburn and other anthropologists, and the practical orthography of Anyawire et al. (2013). As it is based on the IPA, the Woodburn transcription is more accessible to linguists, while the Anyawire orthography is closer to Sandawe and other written languages of Tanzania. There is evidently some political controversy over the choice of orthography, with Hadza reporting they have been told that if they use the Anyawire orthography they will loose their land. There are two motivations for the Anyawire orthography: the perception that the IPA click letters of the Woodburn transcription portray the Hadza language as bizarre, when the Hadza people already have difficulties with being marginalized and a perception that they are not proper human beings, and the practical issue that the ubiquitous apostrophe of the Woodburn transcription makes it impractical for extended use. The apostrophes are generally omitted by those Hadza who have learned the Woodburn system, with the resulting texts often being unintelligible even to their authors; when the apostrophes are written, they greatly slow down the pace of writing. In the Anyawire orthography, doubled consonants are used for glottalized/ejective consonants and doubled vowels for glottal stop, with the apostrophe only being used for the Swahili convention of ⟨ngʼ⟩ for borrowed /ŋ/.

The Anyawire orthography is used alongside the IPA in this article for accessibility with the Anyawire dictionary. For clarity, an apostrophe will be retained in this article for glottal stop between unlike vowels, e.g. ⟨ae⟩ /ae/ vs ⟨aʼe⟩ /aʔe/. In practice, the Hadza are more likely to write an epenthetic glide between vowels in hiatus, e.g. ⟨aye⟩ for /ae/ vs ⟨ae⟩ for /aʔe/.

=== Phonology ===
Hadza syllable structure is limited to CVN in native words. There are no vowel-initial roots, unless ''h'' is analyzed as an allophone of zero. It is possible that nasal codas are found primarily in loan words and ideophones. This N surfaces as a homorganic nasal when a following consonant has a place of articulation for it to assimilate to, and as nasalization of the vowel before a glottal consonant (glottal stop and ''h''/zero) and pre-pausa. Coda N also appears allophonically before voiced nasal and glottalized nasal clicks. A moraic (syllabic?) nasal is also found word-initially in loans from Bantu and Datooga (and, due to metathesis, in a few Cushitic loans), in which case it may have a different pitch than the following vowel, or may be preceded by an epenthetic vowel; such nasals are analyzed here as NCV sequences rather than as a series of prenasalized consonants. Phonetically, initial #NCV may also occur in shortened forms when the initial hV syllable of a #hVC₂V-shaped word is elided and C₂ is a glottalized nasal click.

==== Stress and tone ====
It is not yet clear whether Hadza has phonemic tone. If it does, it is likely to have a minimal system of the kind often called [[pitch accent]]. Salient stress and pitch are not restricted to a particular syllable; their position may vary between elicitations of at least some words pronounced in isolation, but in some words pitch appears to be fixed. Heavy syllables tend to attract stress but again the pattern is not absolute. There are no known minimal pairs, grammatical or lexical, for stress or pitch. Minimal pairs claimed in the literature have turned out to either not be distinct in pronunciation, or to not be minimal pairs (e.g., one of the words may have an additional morpheme such as the habitual suffix ''-e'', which frequently reduces to vowel length and attracts stress). It may be that some loanwords retain the tone of their source language.

==== Vowels ====
There are five phonemic vowels, which are close to cardinal [a e i o u].

{| class="wikitable" style=text-align:center
|+Hadza vowels
| style="background: white" |
! Front
! Central
! Back
|-
! High
| i || || u
|-
! Mid
| e || || o
|-
! Low
| || a ||
|}

Phonetic nasal vowels, which are not common except before a consonant, are here analyzed as /VN/.

Phonetic long vowels are often sequences, as in ''kaha'' [kaː] ~ [kaɦa] 'to climb'. In some words, however, there is no allomorph with [ɦ], as in ''bôko'' [boːko] 'she' (forms a minimal pair with ''boko'' [boko] 'to be ill') and ''sêta'' [seːta] 'moon'. There is no known minimal set to establish long /Vː/ as distinct from a /VV/ sequence.

The mid vowels /e, o/ tend to rise when a high vowel, /i, u/, occurs in the following syllable, and /e, o/ may merge with /i, u/ in that position. However, such assimilation tends to be optional, even in suffixed pronouns such as ''onebii'' [ʔone̝biʔi] ~ ''unibii'' [ʔunibiʔi] 'we' (masculine, inclusive).

/u/ is relatively uncommon except in loans or due to vowel-height assimilation. /u/ does not occur at all in grammatical morphemes unless the morpheme has a second syllable with vowel /i/, and so is presumably a historical *o in such cases.

Vowels tend to devoice in pre-pausa position after a voiceless consonant. In the highly frequent pattern of word-final -V₁ʔV₁ (where the two vowels are the same, a pattern found in half of all grammatical suffixes and clitics though not frequently elsewhere), the vowel and preceding glottal stop tend to elide completely when pre-pausa, and either elide or reduce to a long vowel before a suffix/clitic or another word.

==== Consonants ====
Hadza has at least 50 productive syllable onsets and several other marginal consonants.

{| class="wikitable" style=text-align:center
|+Principal Hadza consonants (Parentheses: loans. Dark background: may follow a nasal coda.)
! rowspan=2 colspan=2 |
! rowspan=2 | Labial
! rowspan=2 colspan=2 | (Denti-) alveolar
! rowspan=2 | (Post-) alveolar
! rowspan=2 | Palatal
! colspan=2 | Post-velar
! rowspan=2 | Glottal/ placeless
|- class=small
! plain
! labialized
|-
! rowspan=4 | Click
! Aspirated
|
| colspan=2 style="background: silver" |ᵏǀʰ
| style="background: silver" |ᵏǃʰ
| style="background: LightGray" |ᵏǁʰ
| colspan=3 rowspan=4 style="background: white" |
|-
! Tenuis
|
| colspan=2 style="background: silver" |ᵏǀ
| style="background: Gainsboro" |ᵏǃ
| style="background: Gainsboro" |ᵏǁ
|-
! Voiced nasal
|
| colspan=2 | ⁿǀ
| ⁿǃ
| ⁿǁ
|-
! Glottalized nasal
|
| colspan=2 | ⁿǀˀ
| ⁿǃˀ
| ⁿǁˀ
|-
! rowspan=5 | Plosive / affricate
|-
! Ejective
| pʼ
| colspan=2| t͜sʼ
| t͜ʃʼ
| c͜ʎ̥˔ʼ
| k͜xʼ
| k͜xʷʼ
| style="background: white" |
|-
! Aspirated
| style="background: silver" |pʰ
| style="background: silver" |tʰ
| style="background: silver" |t͜sʰ
| style="background: silver" |t͜ʃʰ
| c͜ʎ̥˔ʰ
| style="background: silver" |kʰ
| style="background: silver" |kʷʰ
|
|-
! Tenuis
| style="background: silver" |p
| style="background: silver" |t
| style="background: silver" |t͜s
| style="background: silver" |t͜ʃ
| c͜ʎ̥˔
| style="background: silver" |k
| style="background: silver" |kʷ
| style="background: silver" |ʔ
|-
! Voiced
| b
| (d)
| (d͜z)
| (d͜ʒ)
|
| (ɡ)
| (ɡʷ)
| style="background: white" |
|-
! colspan=2| Nasal
| m
| colspan=2| n
| colspan=2| (ɲ)
| (ŋ)
| (ŋʷ)
| //ƞ//
|-
! colspan=2 | Fricative
| (fʷ)
| ɬ
| s
| ʃ
|
|
|
|
|-
! colspan=2 | Sonorant
|
| colspan=2 | ɺ
|
| j
|
| w
| style="background: silver" | ɦ (zero?)
|}

Consonants in parentheses are thought to be loans, though the voiced obstruents at least are well-integrated and may be spreading to native roots.

Consonants with a medium grey background may follow a coda nasal in the preceding syllable (that is, they may be C₂ in a CVNCV pattern), whereas those on the lightest grey background may not. Alveolar /ǃ/ and lateral /ǁ/ (medium light grey) are not attested in this environment. However, it is suspected these gaps may be accidental, given that only two roots are known with dental /ǀ/ as C₂ after a nasal coda and that these sequences have not yet been investigated in the field. Moreover, the one known case of aspirated lateral /ƞǁʰ/, though its identity was clear when elicited, needs to be confirmed with additional speakers. A word with the same sequence reported in Tucker, Bryan & Woodburn could not be confirmed by Anyawire et al.

The voice-onset time of consonants is reduced after a nasal coda: [[tenuis]] consonants may be partially or completely voiced, and the aspiration of aspirated consonants may be reduced or lost. This is true of clicks as well as of plosives and affricates, and is reflected in both orthographies. There is only a two-way VOT distinction after a nasal coda. A /b/~/p/ distinction has not been found in post-nasal position despite /b/ being native.

Aspiration may only be distinct in the first several syllables of a word. Many speakers distinguish aspirated plosives in only a few words that contrast /k/ and /kʰ/, but maintain a robust aspiration distinction in affricates and clicks. The reason for this asymmetry is unknown.

The glottalized nasal clicks surface as [Ʞʔ] (where ⟨Ʞ⟩ stands for any click release) post-pausa and often as [ŋ͡nʔꞰ] intervocalically. Accounts differ as to whether there is voiceless nasal airflow preceding the click in post-pausa position.

Aspirated clicks may have a delayed and clearly audible posterior release, e.g. [Ʞʰ] ~ [Ʞkʰ]. The audible release has the same post-velar articulation as the ''k''-series of plosives.

The alveolar clicks sound rather palatal with some speakers, and tend to be weakly articulated, though, so far as is known, not slapped as they can be in Sandawe. (Reports of slapped [ǃ¡] clicks in Hadza by a UCLA team in the 1990s could not be confirmed with the UCLA archives, and it would appear that weak/flapped alveolar clicks were erroneously identified with slapped Sandawe clicks that the team had recorded a few weeks earlier.) When intervocalic, nasal alveolar /ⁿǃ/ may surface as, or nearly as, a doubly articulated pulmonic nasal [ŋ͡n]. The lateral clicks, on the other hand, are typically quite salient, and such phonetic reduction has not be noted. They appear to have the same post-alveolar to palatal place of articulation as the lateral affricates. The 'dental' (denti-alveolar) clicks are unremarkable, but are less common than the others.

Among the ejectives, /pʼ/ is uncommon and may be ideophonic. Most other ejectives vary between affricate and fricative realizations. Fricative allophens [sʼ, ʃʼ, xʼ, xʷʼ] have been noted for /t͜sʼ, t͜ʃʼ, k͜xʼ, k͜xʷʼ/. Velar /k͜xʼ/ and /k͜xʷʼ/ also have plosive allophones, [kʼ, kʷʼ], and /k͜xʼ/ has a lateral allophone [k͜ʟ̝̊ʼ]. Ejective /t͜sʼ/ may correspond phonologically to both the plosive and affricate (/t/ and /t͜s/) alveolar series of pulmonic consonants.

The palatal lateral affricates may be pronounced with an alveolar onset, e.g. [t͜ʎ̥˔], or without involving the front of the tongue, e.g. [c͜ʎ̥˔]. Speakers express no preference when hearing these articulations. The relatively uncommon fricative /ɬ/, however, is alveolar; a palatal articulation is not accepted. Given that the fricative may be pronounced as an affricate in some prosodic situations, this means that there is a three-way phonetic place contrast among laterals: [t͜ɬ] vs [t͜ʎ̥˔ ~ c͜ʎ̥˔] and [t͜ʎ̥˔ʼ ~ c͜ʎ̥˔ʼ] vs [k͜ʟ̝̊ʼ].

/ɺ/ is typically realized as [l] post-pausa and [ɾ] elsewhere, though [ɺ] is not uncommon in either position. It tends toward [l] when it occurs as both C₁ and C₂, as in /ɺoɺa/ (sp. rabbit).

[ɦ] and zero may be allophones. If so, and given that vowel-initial suffixes and clitics may elide a short stem-final vowel, it would be simplest to posit that the phoneme is zero and that [ɦ] is an allophone of zero, rather than that /ɦ/ is elided under some conditions. A predictive conditioning environment for the presence or absence of [ɦ] has not been discovered, but prosody may play a role; even vowel-initial suffixes and clitics may be realized with an initial [ɦ] when given contrastive prosody. Assimilation or bilingualism may be involved in the case of loanwords. For instance, an Isanzu loan for 'snake' was recorded as ''ihato'' /ʔiɦato/ at the beginning of the 20th century (and perhaps in an Isanzu-biligual area) but as ''iyato'' /ʔiato/ at the beginning of the 21st century in Mangola.

The glides /j/ and /w/ are not distinctive next to high front /i/ and back /u/, respectively, and rarely (or uncertainly) distinctive next to mid front /e/ and back /o/. It is possible that medial ''y'' and ''w'' are phonemically /i/ and /u/ and that initial ''y'' and ''w'' are /ʔi/ and /ʔu/. When they occur word-initially, purported /jV, wV/ often appear as [ʔi(j)V] and [ʔu(w)V]. This is true even of a ubiquitous sequential auxiliary (''yamo'' [jamo] ~ ''iamo'' [ʔiamo] in the 3msg posterior (past?) tense). [j] does occur in two object suffixes, and it is not clear if these can be explained away as /i/. In the anthropological and linguistic literature, glides ''y'' and ''w'' are often written between unlike vowels. For example, the 3msg non-past copula clitic ''-ha'' /ɦa/ is often transcribed as ''ya'' after a front vowel and as ''wa'' after a back vowel. (The copula sometimes contains a very clear [ɦ], and pre-pausa even [h] due to final devoicing, but often the /ɦ/ is realized as transitional murmur or possibly elided altogether.)

===== Marginal consonants =====

A labial click, variously reported as [ⁿʘʷ] or [ⁿʘˀ], is found in a single root, ''mcwa-'', that is mimetic for a kiss and often made with an accompanying kiss to the hand. ''Mcwa-'' may be allomorphic with ''ncuwa-'' /ⁿǀua/ 'kiss', with a dental click.

A trill [r] is used by some speakers in some words, such as ''karro'' /karo/ (hunting/sighting name for a female giraffe), perhaps reflecting the pronunciation of the word in the language it was borrowed from. It is replaced with /ɺ/ (''karo'' /kaɺo/) by other speakers.

An implosive [ɓ] is used by some speakers in some words, perhaps reflecting the pronunciation of the word in the source language, though in some instances it might co-occur with ejectives, which would be difficult to explain away as a loan (e.g. ''beggawuko'' /bekx’auko/ 'elephant', apparently [ɓekx’auko] in some recordings). It is replaced with /b/ by other speakers. Other implosives have not been noted.

A fricative [x] occurs lexicalized in an expletive, ''ahho'' [ʔaxo], where otherwise the root is ''akho'' /ʔakʰo/ 'genitals'. (/kʰ/ is commonly realized as [kx].)

Word-initial /mu/ and occasionally /mo/ are optionally realized as syllabic [m̩], for example in the common greeting ''mutana'' ~ ''mtana''. This is a Bantu alternation.

/v/ may occasionally be found in loans, as in mimetic ''vûvuko'' ~ ''fûfuko'' /vuːvuko ~ fuːfuko/ 'propeller toy', though it is normally replaced with /f/. [v] (or perhaps [β]) has been reported for /b/, for example in Bleek's transcriptions of the plural suffixes ''-bee'' and ''-bii'' as 've' and 'vi'.

===== Phonotactics =====
All clicks within a root must be the same, as in /ǀikiɺiƞǀa/ 'pinkie'. Although there is a tendency for click consonants and ejectives to occur as C₁, in a quarter of words with clicks the click occurs only as C₂, and in other words as both C₁ and C₂.

Clicks and ejectives may co-occur, though always in that order. When they co-occur, there appears to be some sibilant/lateral harmony, with a strong tendency for /t͜sʼ/ to occur after denti-alveolar clicks and for /c͜ʎ̥˔ʼ/ to occur after lateral clicks. (/k͜xʼ/ does not seem to be affected by the click, and is common after all places/types.)

When an aspirated consonant occurs more than once in a word, the first instance tends to deaspirate (as in Grassmann's/Katupha's Law, though generally optional in Hadza). A coda N may block deaspiration, as in the allomorphs /peǃeǃʰe/ ~ /peƞǃʰeƞǃʰe/ 'to rush'. Repeated NC sequences may loose their nasal segment as well, as in /ƞtʰaɺaƞtʰaɺaʔabiʔi/ ~ /taɺaƞtʰaɺaʔabiʔi/ '(arrow) barbs'. It is not clear to what extent these patterns hold if the aspirated consonants are different rather than repeated phonemes.

===Swadesh lists===
Only roots are given below. For example, the word for 'name', given here as the root ''akhana'', is actually feminine plural ''akhanabee''.

====Wichmann & Holman basic 40-word list (ordered by stability)====

#louse ''ccamazzi'' /ⁿǀˀamat͜sʼi/<ref>cf. ''ccezze'' /ⁿǀˀet͜s’e/ 'tick'</ref>
#two ''piye'' /pie/, ''konxa'' /koⁿǁa/ (verb)
#water ''ati'' /ʔati/ (mpl; msg = 'rain, river')
#ear ''hajjapitchi'' /ɦat͜ʃ’apit͜ʃʰi/<ref>from ''hazzape'' /ɦat͜s’ape/ 'leaf'?</ref>
#to die ''taxxi'' /taⁿǁˀi/, ''misi'' /misi/ (Datooga?)
#I *one /ʔone/, */-ko/<ref>If *-ko-a > /-kʷa/ rather than *-kʷa-ʔV > /-koʔo/.</ref>
#liver ''xxe'' /ⁿǁˀe/
#eye ''akhwa'' /ʔakʷʰa/
#hand, arm ''ukhwa'' /ʔukʷʰa/
#hear ''nxaʼe'' /ⁿǁaʔe/
#tree ''zziti'' /t͜s’iti/
#fish ''ccama'' /ⁿǀˀama/, ''ccara'' /ⁿǀˀaɺa/
#name ''akhana'' /ʔakʰana/
#stone ''haqqa'' /ɦaⁿǃˀa/
#tooth ''aha'' /ʔaɦa/
#breast ''iriba'' /ʔiɺiba/ ('breasts, milk'. Cushitic); ''ggazza'' /k͜x’at͜s’a/ ('flesh at sternum')
#thou ''the'' /tʰe/, /-en-/ (m), /-n-/ (f)
#path ''yeke'' /jeke/
#bone ''midla'' /mic͜ʎ̥˔’a/ (cf. Dahalo)
#tongue ''ncata'' /ⁿǀata/
#skin ''ahu'' /ʔaɦu/
#night ''zzifi'' /t͜s’ifi/ (m; f = 'day')
#leaf ''hazzape'' /ɦat͜s’ape/
#rain = 'water' (msg = 'rain, river'; mpl = 'water')
#kill ''xô'' /ǁoː/
#blood ''athama'' /ʔatʰama/
#horn ''roo'' /ɺoʔo/
#person ''haza'' /ɦad͜za/ (human), ''unu'' /ʔunu/ (person)
#knee ''guringuri'' /ɡuɺiƞɡuɺi/ ~ ''gurunguri'' /ɡuɺuƞɡuɺi/ (Cushitic? pan-African)
#one ''itchâme'' /ʔit͜ʃʰaːme/
#nose ''intawe'' /ʔiƞtʰawe/
#full ''ggaʼe'' /k͜x’aʔe/, *cco- /ⁿǀˀo-/
#come ''za'' /d͜za/ (Bantu), ''botco'' /bot͜ʃo/ (stem of imperative)
#star ''ntsa'' /ƞt͜sʰa/, ''sa'' /sa/ (Cushitic?)<ref>Anyawire et al. (2013) only found ''ntsa''. Tucker et al. (1977) report ''sa'' 'star', and Woodburn confirms the form he knows does not have a nasal onset. /ƞ/ + /sa/ would generate /ƞt͜sʰa/. Indeed, speakers do not care if the latter is written ''ntsa'' or ''nsa''. There are several Cushitic loanwords that have an onset that varies as C ~ NC in Hadza where the source language is only reconstructed with C.</ref>
#mountain ''xxudle'' /ⁿǁˀuc͜ʎ̥˔’e/
#fire ''zzoko'' /t͜s’oko/
#we (exclusive) ''ô'' /ʔoː/, /-j-/
#to drink ''fa'' /fʷa/
#to see ''chî'' /ǀʰiː/ ~ ''cî'' /ǀiː/
#bark ''heggwa'' /ɦek͜xʷ’a/
#new ''zana'' /d͜zana/<ref>from ''za'' 'come'?</ref>
#dog ''xhaano'' /ǁʰaʔano/, ''tîngi'' /tiːƞki/
#sun ''isho'' /ʔiʃo/

===Notes===
<references/>

===Bibliography===

* Mariamu Anyawire, G.G. Bala, Kirk Miller (ed.) & Bonny Sands (2013). ''A Hadza Lexicon'' (ms).
* Roger Blench (2008). [https://web.archive.org/web/20110721180216/http://www.rogerblench.info/Language%20data/Khoesan/Blench%20paper%20Riezlern%202008.pdf Hadza Animal Names.] Paper presented at the 3rd International Symposium on Khoisan Languages and Linguistics, Riezlern, 7–9 July 2008.
* Niklas Edenmyr (2004). [https://web.archive.org/web/20070706040409/http://www.african.gu.se/aa/pdfs/aa04003.pdf The semantics of Hadza gender assignment: a few notes from the field.] ''Africa & Asia'', no. 4, Department of Oriental and African languages, Göteborg University, 3–19.
* Edward Elderkin (1978). Loans in Hadza: internal evidence from consonants. ''Occasional Papers'' 3, Dar es Salaam.
* Peter Ladefoged, Ian Maddieson & Bonny Sands (1991). [http://archive.phonetics.ucla.edu/Language/HTS/hts.html Hadza wordlist and sound files]. UCLA Phonetics Lab Archive.
* ———— (1993). [https://www.academia.edu/17743030/The_phonetic_structures_of_Hadza The Phonetic Structures of Hadza.] In [http://repositories.cdlib.org/uclaling/wpp/No84/ ''UCLA Working Papers in Phonetics'' No. 84: ''Fieldwork Studies in Targeted Languages'',] 67–87.
* Kirk Miller (2008). [https://www.academia.edu/36533859/Hadza_grammar_notes Hadza Grammar Notes.] Paper presented at the 3rd International Symposium on Khoisan Languages and Linguistics, Riezlern, 7–9 July 2008.
* ———— (2009). [https://www.academia.edu/36533860/Highlights_of_Hadza_Fieldwork Highlights of Hadza fieldwork.] Paper presented at the 83rd Annual Meeting of the Linguistic Society of America, San Francisco, 8–11 January 2009.
* ———— (2016). Hadza Kinship Terms. In Shah & Brenzinger, eds., ''Khoisan Languages and Linguistics: Proceedings of the 5th International Symposium, July 13–17, 2014, Riezlern/Kleinwalsertal.'' Cologne: Rüdiger Köppe, 277–333.
* Bonny Sands (1998). The Linguistic Relationship between Hadza and Khoisan. In Schladt, Matthias (ed.) ''Language, Identity, and Conceptualization among the Khoisan'' (Quellen zur Khoisan-Forschung Vol. 15), Cologne: Rüdiger Köppe, 265–283.
* ———— (2013). Phonetics and phonology: Hadza; Tonology: Hadza; Morphology: Hadza; Syntax: Hadza. In Rainer Vossen, ed., ''The Khoesan Languages''. Oxford: Routledge.
*Sergei Starostin. [http://starling.rinet.ru/cgi-bin/response.cgi?root=new100&morpho=0&basename=new100\hdz\hdz&limit=-1 Hadza basic lexicon.] Global Lexicostatistical Database. [much of the parsing is speculation, and Bleek's posthumous data is unreliable]
* A.N. Tucker, M.A. Bryan & James Woodburn as co-author for Hadza (1977). The East African Click Languages: A Phonetic Comparison. In J.G. Moehlig, Franz Rottland, Bernd Heine, eds, ''Zur Sprachgeschichte und Ethnohistorie in Afrika.'' Berlin: Dietrich Diener.

[[Category:En]]
[[Category:Single language]]

Hadza

2021-01-05T03:37:51Z

Kirk Miller: /* Consonants */

{{InfoboxLanguage
|Language = Hadza
|Autonym = ''Haza, hazane''
|Pronunciation = ɦad͜za
|Ethn15name = Hadza
|Countries = Tanzania
|OfficialLg = none
|OLACname = Hadza
|WALSLoc = 3°45′ S, 35°10′ E
|Speakers = 1,000
|Family = [[isolate]]
|Genus = Hadza
|WritingSyst = none
|ISO3 = hts
}}

Hadza is a language isolate of Tanzania.

=== Location and Speakers ===
Hadza is spoken along the entire eastern shore of alkaline Lake Eyasi, which lies at the base of the Serengeti Plateau in central Tanzania, from Mount Oldeani in the north (just south of Ngorongoro Crater) to the Isanzu agricultural areas in the south. The Hadza do not live at altitudes much above 1500 meters, as they do not build shelters that will ward off the night chill at higher elevations.

There is a small population of Hadza to the west of the lake, in ''Dunduhina'' /duƞtuhina/<ref>This article uses the old IPA letter for a moraic nasal, ⟨ƞ⟩, which was retired because it has no specific phonetic value. In Hadza, the moraic nasal is homorganic with a following consonant.</ref> 'Sukumaland', but their number seems to be decreasing and many only speak Sukuma and Swahili.

There are approximately 1,000 speakers of Hadza, most now bilingual in Swahili. Other second languages include [[Isanzu]] in the south, [[Sukuma]] in the west, and to a lesser degree [[Datooga]] in the center (e.g. near the Yaeda Valley to the southeast of the lake) and [[Iraqw]] on the margins of the Iraqw highlands. The northern Hadza area, around the town of Mangola, was largely monolingual until the introduction of Standard Swahili after independence, though there are loanwords from colonial-era 'upcountry' Swahili.

As of 2005, about 40% of Hadza lived as full-time hunter-gatherers, and language transmission was robust in the areas east of the lake, but since then there have been reports of children speaking Swahili east of the lake, perhaps due to the influx of ''Dunduhinabee'' abandoning their territory in the west.

=== Classification ===
Hadza is a [[language isolate]]. Greenberg classified it as [[Khoisan]] due to its use of [[click consonant]]s. If it were not for the clicks, it's likely that Hadza would have been classified as [[Cushitic]]. Hadza and Sandawe have very similar phonetic inventories and phonotactics, suggesting an old sprachbund. However, the only detected commonalities in vocabulary are old Cushitic loans or perhaps loans that passed from one to the other through Cushitic. Much of the borrowed Cushitic vocabulary is consistent with reconstructions of proto-West Rift.

=== Dialects ===
There do not appear to be any dialects of Hadza, presumably due to the mobility of its speakers. There are some regional differences of vocabulary, however, and speakers note that many more Bantu loans are used in the south.

=== Name ===
"Hadza" is the most common name in the literature. ''Haza'' /ɦad͜za/ simply means 'human being'. The derivative "Hadzane" (/ɦad͜zane/ 'in the manner of the people') is sometimes encountered as the name of the language. The feminine plural ''hazabee'' /ɦad͜zabeʔe/ may be used for the people, though it is usually spelled "Hadzabe" due to devoicing of the final vowel. (The feminine is the inclusive gender in the plural.) "Hadzapi" is the masculine-plural copular form ''hazaphii'' /ɦad͜zapʰiʔi/. "Hatza" and "Hatsa" are older German spellings.

"Tindiga" is from the Swahili name, ''watindiga'' 'people of the marsh grass', presumably named for the large spring in Mangola. The forms ''wahadza'', ''kihadza'' are found instead of ''watindiga'', ''kitindiga'' in recent Swahili publications, but the Hadza do not consider ''watindiga'' to be pejorative. "Kindiga" may be a cognate from one of the local Bantu languages. "Kangeju" (pronounced ''Kangeyu'') is an obsolete German name of unclear origin. The name "Wahi" (pronounced ''Vahi'') found for the western Hadza in Kohl-Larsen is a Sukuma name for the Hadza.

=== Orthography ===
Hadza does not have a written tradition. Two orthographies have seen recent use: the phonetic transcription of Tucker, Bryan & Woodburn (1977), used with some modification by Woodburn and other anthropologists, and the practical orthography of Anyawire et al. (2013). As it is based on the IPA, the Woodburn transcription is more accessible to linguists, while the Anyawire orthography is closer to Sandawe and other written languages of Tanzania. There is evidently some political controversy over the choice of orthography, with Hadza reporting they have been told that if they use the Anyawire orthography they will loose their land. There are two motivations for the Anyawire orthography: the perception that the IPA click letters of the Woodburn transcription portray the Hadza language as bizarre, when the Hadza people already have difficulties with being marginalized and a perception that they are not proper human beings, and the practical issue that the ubiquitous apostrophe of the Woodburn transcription makes it impractical for extended use. The apostrophes are generally omitted by those Hadza who have learned the Woodburn system, with the resulting texts often being unintelligible even to their authors; when the apostrophes are written, they greatly slow down the pace of writing. In the Anyawire orthography, doubled consonants are used for glottalized/ejective consonants and doubled vowels for glottal stop, with the apostrophe only being used for the Swahili convention of ⟨ngʼ⟩ for borrowed /ŋ/.

The Anyawire orthography is used alongside the IPA in this article for accessibility with the Anyawire dictionary. For clarity, an apostrophe will be retained in this article for glottal stop between unlike vowels, e.g. ⟨ae⟩ /ae/ vs ⟨aʼe⟩ /aʔe/. In practice, the Hadza are more likely to write an epenthetic glide between vowels in hiatus, e.g. ⟨aye⟩ for /ae/ vs ⟨ae⟩ for /aʔe/.

=== Phonology ===
Hadza syllable structure is limited to CVN in native words. There are no vowel-initial roots, unless ''h'' is analyzed as an allophone of zero. It is possible that nasal codas are found primarily in loan words and ideophones. This N surfaces as a homorganic nasal when a following consonant has a place of articulation for it to assimilate to, and as nasalization of the vowel before a glottal consonant (glottal stop and ''h''/zero) and pre-pausa. Coda N also appears allophonically before voiced nasal and glottalized nasal clicks. A moraic (syllabic?) nasal is also found word-initially in loans from Bantu and Datooga (and, due to metathesis, in a few Cushitic loans), in which case it may have a different pitch than the following vowel, or may be preceded by an epenthetic vowel; such nasals are analyzed here as NCV sequences rather than as a series of prenasalized consonants. Phonetically, initial #NCV may also occur in shortened forms when the initial hV syllable of a #hVC₂V-shaped word is elided and C₂ is a glottalized nasal click.

==== Stress and tone ====
It is not yet clear whether Hadza has phonemic tone. If it does, it is likely to have a minimal system of the kind often called [[pitch accent]]. Salient stress and pitch are not restricted to a particular syllable; their position may vary between elicitations of at least some words pronounced in isolation, but in some words pitch appears to be fixed. Heavy syllables tend to attract stress but again the pattern is not absolute. There are no known minimal pairs, grammatical or lexical, for stress or pitch. Minimal pairs claimed in the literature have turned out to either not be distinct in pronunciation, or to not be minimal pairs (e.g., one of the words may have an additional morpheme such as the habitual suffix ''-e'', which frequently reduces to vowel length and attracts stress). It may be that some loanwords retain the tone of their source language.

==== Vowels ====
There are five phonemic vowels, which are close to cardinal [a e i o u].

{| class="wikitable" style=text-align:center
|+Hadza vowels
| style="background: white" |
! Front
! Central
! Back
|-
! High
| i || || u
|-
! Mid
| e || || o
|-
! Low
| || a ||
|}

Phonetic nasal vowels, which are not common except before a consonant, are here analyzed as /VN/.

Phonetic long vowels are often sequences, as in ''kaha'' [kaː] ~ [kaɦa] 'to climb'. In some words, however, there is no allomorph with [ɦ], as in ''bôko'' [boːko] 'she' (forms a minimal pair with ''boko'' [boko] 'to be ill') and ''sêta'' [seːta] 'moon'. There is no known minimal set to establish long /Vː/ as distinct from a /VV/ sequence.

The mid vowels /e, o/ tend to rise when a high vowel, /i, u/, occurs in the following syllable, and /e, o/ may merge with /i, u/ in that position. However, such assimilation tends to be optional, even in suffixed pronouns such as ''onebii'' [ʔone̝biʔi] ~ ''unibii'' [ʔunibiʔi] 'we' (masculine, inclusive).

/u/ is relatively uncommon except in loans or due to vowel-height assimilation. /u/ does not occur at all in grammatical morphemes unless the morpheme has a second syllable with vowel /i/, and so is presumably a historical *o in such cases.

Vowels tend to devoice in pre-pausa position after a voiceless consonant. In the highly frequent pattern of word-final -V₁ʔV₁ (where the two vowels are the same, a pattern found in half of all grammatical suffixes and clitics though not frequently elsewhere), the vowel and preceding glottal stop tend to elide completely when pre-pausa, and either elide or reduce to a long vowel before a suffix/clitic or another word.

==== Consonants ====
Hadza has at least 50 productive syllable onsets and several other marginal consonants.

{| class="wikitable" style=text-align:center
|+Principal Hadza consonants (Parentheses: loans. Dark background: may follow a nasal coda.)
! rowspan=2 colspan=2 |
! rowspan=2 | Labial
! rowspan=2 colspan=2 | (Denti-) alveolar
! rowspan=2 | (Post-) alveolar
! rowspan=2 | Palatal
! colspan=2 | Post-velar
! rowspan=2 | Glottal/ placeless
|- class=small
! plain
! labialized
|-
! rowspan=4 | Click
! Aspirated
|
| colspan=2 style="background: silver" |ᵏǀʰ
| style="background: silver" |ᵏǃʰ
| style="background: LightGray" |ᵏǁʰ
| colspan=3 rowspan=4 style="background: white" |
|-
! Tenuis
|
| colspan=2 style="background: silver" |ᵏǀ
| style="background: Gainsboro" |ᵏǃ
| style="background: Gainsboro" |ᵏǁ
|-
! Voiced nasal
|
| colspan=2 | ⁿǀ
| ⁿǃ
| ⁿǁ
|-
! Glottalized nasal
|
| colspan=2 | ⁿǀˀ
| ⁿǃˀ
| ⁿǁˀ
|-
! rowspan=5 | Plosive / affricate
|-
! Ejective
| pʼ
| colspan=2| t͜sʼ
| t͜ʃʼ
| c͜ʎ̥˔ʼ
| k͜xʼ
| k͜xʷʼ
| style="background: white" |
|-
! Aspirated
| style="background: silver" |pʰ
| style="background: silver" |tʰ
| style="background: silver" |t͜sʰ
| style="background: silver" |t͜ʃʰ
| c͜ʎ̥˔ʰ
| style="background: silver" |kʰ
| style="background: silver" |kʷʰ
|
|-
! Tenuis
| style="background: silver" |p
| style="background: silver" |t
| style="background: silver" |t͜s
| style="background: silver" |t͜ʃ
| c͜ʎ̥˔
| style="background: silver" |k
| style="background: silver" |kʷ
| style="background: silver" |ʔ
|-
! Voiced
| b
| (d)
| (d͜z)
| (d͜ʒ)
|
| (ɡ)
| (ɡʷ)
| style="background: white" |
|-
! colspan=2| Nasal
| m
| colspan=2| n
| colspan=2| (ɲ)
| (ŋ)
| (ŋʷ)
| //ƞ//
|-
! colspan=2 | Fricative
| (fʷ)
| ɬ
| s
| ʃ
|
|
|
|
|-
! colspan=2 | Sonorant
|
| colspan=2 | ɺ
|
| j
|
| w
| style="background: silver" | ɦ (zero?)
|}

Consonants in parentheses are thought to be loans, though the voiced obstruents at least are well-integrated and may be spreading to native roots.

Consonants with a medium grey background may follow a coda nasal in the preceding syllable (that is, they may be C₂ in a CVNCV pattern), whereas those on the lightest grey background may not. Alveolar /ǃ/ and lateral /ǁ/ (medium light grey) are not attested in this environment. However, it is suspected these gaps may be accidental, given that only two roots are known with dental /ǀ/ as C₂ after a nasal coda and that these sequences have not yet been investigated in the field. Moreover, the one known case of aspirated lateral /ƞǁʰ/, though its identity was clear when elicited, needs to be confirmed with additional speakers. A word with the same sequence reported in Tucker, Bryan & Woodburn could not be confirmed by Anyawire et al.

The voice-onset time of consonants is reduced after a nasal coda: [[tenuis]] consonants may be partially or completely voiced, and the aspiration of aspirated consonants may be reduced or lost. This is true of clicks as well as of plosives and affricates, and is reflected in both orthographies. There is only a two-way VOT distinction after a nasal coda. A /b/~/p/ distinction has not been found in post-nasal position despite /b/ being native.

Aspiration may only be distinct in the first several syllables of a word. Many speakers distinguish aspirated plosives in only a few words that contrast /k/ and /kʰ/, but maintain a robust aspiration distinction in affricates and clicks. The reason for this asymmetry is unknown.

The glottalized nasal clicks surface as [Ʞʔ] (where ⟨Ʞ⟩ stands for any click release) post-pausa and often as [ŋ͡nʔꞰ] intervocalically. Accounts differ as to whether there is voiceless nasal airflow preceding the click in post-pausa position.

Aspirated clicks may have a delayed and clearly audible posterior release, e.g. [Ʞʰ] ~ [Ʞkʰ]. The audible release has the same post-velar articulation as the ''k''-series of plosives.

The alveolar clicks sound rather palatal with some speakers, and tend to be weakly articulated, though, so far as is known, not slapped as they can be in Sandawe. (Reports of slapped [ǃ¡] clicks in Hadza by a UCLA team in the 1990s could not be confirmed with the UCLA archives, and it would appear that weak/flapped alveolar clicks were erroneously identified with slapped Sandawe clicks that the team had recorded a few weeks earlier.) When intervocalic, nasal alveolar /ⁿǃ/ may surface as, or nearly as, a doubly articulated pulmonic nasal [ŋ͡n]. The lateral clicks, on the other hand, are typically quite salient, and such phonetic reduction has not be noted. They appear to have the same post-alveolar to palatal place of articulation as the lateral affricates. The 'dental' (denti-alveolar) clicks are unremarkable, but are less common than the others.

Among the ejectives, /pʼ/ is uncommon and may be ideophonic. Most other ejectives vary between affricate and fricative realizations. Fricative allophens [sʼ, ʃʼ, xʼ, xʷʼ] have been noted for /t͜sʼ, t͜ʃʼ, k͜xʼ, k͜xʷʼ/. Velar /k͜xʼ/ and /k͜xʷʼ/ also have plosive allophones, [kʼ, kʷʼ], and /k͜xʼ/ has a lateral allophone [k͜ʟ̝̊ʼ]. Ejective /t͜sʼ/ may correspond phonologically to both the plosive and affricate (/t/ and /t͜s/) alveolar series of pulmonic consonants.

The palatal lateral affricates may be pronounced with an alveolar onset, e.g. [t͜ʎ̥˔], or without involving the front of the tongue, e.g. [c͜ʎ̥˔]. Speakers express no preference when hearing these articulations. The relatively uncommon fricative /ɬ/, however, is alveolar; a palatal articulation is not accepted. Given that the fricative may be pronounced as an affricate in some prosodic situations, this means that there is a three-way phonetic place contrast among laterals: [t͜ɬ] vs [t͜ʎ̥˔ ~ c͜ʎ̥˔] and [t͜ʎ̥˔ʼ ~ c͜ʎ̥˔ʼ] vs [k͜ʟ̝̊ʼ].

/ɺ/ is typically realized as [l] post-pausa and [ɾ] elsewhere, though [ɺ] is not uncommon in either position. It tends toward [l] when it occurs as both C₁ and C₂, as in /ɺoɺa/ (sp. rabbit).

[ɦ] and zero may be allophones. If so, and given that vowel-initial suffixes and clitics may elide a short stem-final vowel, it would be simplest to posit that the phoneme is zero and that [ɦ] is an allophone of zero, rather than that /ɦ/ is elided under some conditions. A predictive conditioning environment for the presence or absence of [ɦ] has not been discovered, but prosody may play a role; even vowel-initial suffixes and clitics may be realized with an initial [ɦ] when given contrastive prosody. Assimilation or bilingualism may be involved in the case of loanwords. For instance, an Isanzu loan for 'snake' was recorded as ''ihato'' /ʔiɦato/ at the beginning of the 20th century (and perhaps in an Isanzu-biligual area) but as ''iyato'' /ʔiato/ at the beginning of the 21st century in Mangola.

The glides /j/ and /w/ are not distinctive next to high front /i/ and back /u/, respectively, and rarely (or uncertainly) distinctive next to mid front /e/ and back /o/. It is possible that medial ''y'' and ''w'' are phonemically /i/ and /u/ and that initial ''y'' and ''w'' are /ʔi/ and /ʔu/. When they occur word-initially, purported /jV, wV/ often appear as [ʔi(j)V] and [ʔu(w)V]. This is true even of a ubiquitous sequential auxiliary (''yamo'' [jamo] ~ ''iamo'' [ʔiamo] in the 3msg posterior (past?) tense). [j] does occur in two object suffixes, and it is not clear if these can be explained away as /i/. In the anthropological and linguistic literature, glides ''y'' and ''w'' are often written between unlike vowels. For example, the 3msg non-past copula clitic ''-ha'' /ɦa/ is often transcribed as ''ya'' after a front vowel and as ''wa'' after a back vowel. (The copula sometimes contains a very clear [ɦ], and pre-pausa even [h] due to final devoicing, but often the /ɦ/ is realized as transitional murmur or possibly elided altogether.)

===== Marginal consonants =====

A labial click, variously reported as [ⁿʘʷ] or [ⁿʘˀ], is found in a single root, ''mcwa-'', that is mimetic for a kiss and often made with an accompanying kiss to the hand. ''Mcwa-'' may be allomorphic with ''ncuwa-'' /ⁿǀua/ 'kiss', with a dental click.

A trill [r] is used by some speakers in some words, such as ''karro'' /karo/ (hunting/sighting name for a female giraffe), perhaps reflecting the pronunciation of the word in the language it was borrowed from. It is replaced with /ɺ/ (''karo'' /kaɺo/) by other speakers.

An implosive [ɓ] is used by some speakers in some words, perhaps reflecting the pronunciation of the word in the source language, though in some instances it might co-occur with ejectives, which would be difficult to explain away as a loan (e.g. ''beggawuko'' /bekx’auko/ 'elephant', apparently [ɓekx’auko] in some recordings). It is replaced with /b/ by other speakers. Other implosives have not been noted.

A fricative [x] occurs lexicalized in an expletive, ''ahho'' [ʔaxo], where otherwise the root is ''akho'' /ʔakʰo/ 'genitals'. (/kʰ/ is commonly realized as [kx].)

Word-initial /mu/ and occasionally /mo/ are optionally realized as syllabic [m̩], for example in the common greeting ''mutana'' ~ ''mtana''. This is a Bantu alternation.

/v/ may occasionally be found in loans, as in mimetic ''vûvuko'' ~ ''fûfuko'' /vuːvuko ~ fuːfuko/ 'propeller toy', though it is normally replaced with /f/. [v] (or perhaps [β]) has been reported for /b/, for example in Bleek's transcriptions of the plural suffixes ''-bee'' and ''-bii'' as 've' and 'vi'.

===== Phonotactics =====
All clicks within a root must be the same, as in /ǀikiɺiƞǀa/ 'pinkie'. Although there is a tendency for click consonants and ejectives to occur as C₁, in a quarter of words with clicks the click occurs only as C₂, and in other words as both C₁ and C₂.

Clicks and ejectives may co-occur, though always in that order. When they co-occur, there appears to be some sibilant/lateral harmony, with a strong tendency for /t͜sʼ/ to occur after denti-alveolar clicks and for /c͜ʎ̥˔ʼ/ to occur after lateral clicks.

When an aspirated consonant occurs more than once in a word, the first instance tends to deaspirate (Grassmann's/Katupha's Law, though generally optional). A coda N may block deaspiration, as in the allomorphs /peǃeǃʰe/ ~ /peƞǃʰeƞǃʰe/ 'to rush'. Repeated NC sequences may loose their nasal segment as well, as in /ƞtʰaɺaƞtʰaɺaʔabiʔi/ ~ /taɺaƞtʰaɺaʔabiʔi/ '(arrow) barbs'. It is not clear to what extent these patterns hold if the aspirated consonants are different rather than repeated phonemes.

===Swadesh lists===
Only roots are given below. For example, the word for 'name', given here as the root ''akhana'', is actually feminine plural ''akhanabee''.

====Wichmann & Holman basic 40-word list (ordered by stability)====

#louse ''ccamazzi'' /ⁿǀˀamat͜sʼi/<ref>cf. ''ccezze'' /ⁿǀˀet͜s’e/ 'tick'</ref>
#two ''piye'' /pie/, ''konxa'' /koⁿǁa/ (verb)
#water ''ati'' /ʔati/ (mpl; msg = 'rain, river')
#ear ''hajjapitchi'' /ɦat͜ʃ’apit͜ʃʰi/<ref>from ''hazzape'' /ɦat͜s’ape/ 'leaf'?</ref>
#to die ''taxxi'' /taⁿǁˀi/, ''misi'' /misi/ (Datooga?)
#I *one /ʔone/, */-ko/<ref>If *-ko-a > /-kʷa/ rather than *-kʷa-ʔV > /-koʔo/.</ref>
#liver ''xxe'' /ⁿǁˀe/
#eye ''akhwa'' /ʔakʷʰa/
#hand, arm ''ukhwa'' /ʔukʷʰa/
#hear ''nxaʼe'' /ⁿǁaʔe/
#tree ''zziti'' /t͜s’iti/
#fish ''ccama'' /ⁿǀˀama/, ''ccara'' /ⁿǀˀaɺa/
#name ''akhana'' /ʔakʰana/
#stone ''haqqa'' /ɦaⁿǃˀa/
#tooth ''aha'' /ʔaɦa/
#breast ''iriba'' /ʔiɺiba/ ('breasts, milk'. Cushitic); ''ggazza'' /k͜x’at͜s’a/ ('flesh at sternum')
#thou ''the'' /tʰe/, /-en-/ (m), /-n-/ (f)
#path ''yeke'' /jeke/
#bone ''midla'' /mic͜ʎ̥˔’a/ (cf. Dahalo)
#tongue ''ncata'' /ⁿǀata/
#skin ''ahu'' /ʔaɦu/
#night ''zzifi'' /t͜s’ifi/ (m; f = 'day')
#leaf ''hazzape'' /ɦat͜s’ape/
#rain = 'water' (msg = 'rain, river'; mpl = 'water')
#kill ''xô'' /ǁoː/
#blood ''athama'' /ʔatʰama/
#horn ''roo'' /ɺoʔo/
#person ''haza'' /ɦad͜za/ (human), ''unu'' /ʔunu/ (person)
#knee ''guringuri'' /ɡuɺiƞɡuɺi/ ~ ''gurunguri'' /ɡuɺuƞɡuɺi/ (Cushitic? pan-African)
#one ''itchâme'' /ʔit͜ʃʰaːme/
#nose ''intawe'' /ʔiƞtʰawe/
#full ''ggaʼe'' /k͜x’aʔe/, *cco- /ⁿǀˀo-/
#come ''za'' /d͜za/ (Bantu), ''botco'' /bot͜ʃo/ (stem of imperative)
#star ''ntsa'' /ƞt͜sʰa/, ''sa'' /sa/ (Cushitic?)<ref>Anyawire et al. (2013) only found ''ntsa''. Tucker et al. (1977) report ''sa'' 'star', and Woodburn confirms the form he knows does not have a nasal onset. /ƞ/ + /sa/ would generate /ƞt͜sʰa/. Indeed, speakers do not care if the latter is written ''ntsa'' or ''nsa''. There are several Cushitic loanwords that have an onset that varies as C ~ NC in Hadza where the source language is only reconstructed with C.</ref>
#mountain ''xxudle'' /ⁿǁˀuc͜ʎ̥˔’e/
#fire ''zzoko'' /t͜s’oko/
#we (exclusive) ''ô'' /ʔoː/, /-j-/
#to drink ''fa'' /fʷa/
#to see ''chî'' /ǀʰiː/ ~ ''cî'' /ǀiː/
#bark ''heggwa'' /ɦek͜xʷ’a/
#new ''zana'' /d͜zana/<ref>from ''za'' 'come'?</ref>
#dog ''xhaano'' /ǁʰaʔano/, ''tîngi'' /tiːƞki/
#sun ''isho'' /ʔiʃo/

===Notes===
<references/>

===Bibliography===

* Mariamu Anyawire, G.G. Bala, Kirk Miller (ed.) & Bonny Sands (2013). ''A Hadza Lexicon'' (ms).
* Roger Blench (2008). [https://web.archive.org/web/20110721180216/http://www.rogerblench.info/Language%20data/Khoesan/Blench%20paper%20Riezlern%202008.pdf Hadza Animal Names.] Paper presented at the 3rd International Symposium on Khoisan Languages and Linguistics, Riezlern, 7–9 July 2008.
* Niklas Edenmyr (2004). [https://web.archive.org/web/20070706040409/http://www.african.gu.se/aa/pdfs/aa04003.pdf The semantics of Hadza gender assignment: a few notes from the field.] ''Africa & Asia'', no. 4, Department of Oriental and African languages, Göteborg University, 3–19.
* Edward Elderkin (1978). Loans in Hadza: internal evidence from consonants. ''Occasional Papers'' 3, Dar es Salaam.
* Peter Ladefoged, Ian Maddieson & Bonny Sands (1991). [http://archive.phonetics.ucla.edu/Language/HTS/hts.html Hadza wordlist and sound files]. UCLA Phonetics Lab Archive.
* ———— (1993). [https://www.academia.edu/17743030/The_phonetic_structures_of_Hadza The Phonetic Structures of Hadza.] In [http://repositories.cdlib.org/uclaling/wpp/No84/ ''UCLA Working Papers in Phonetics'' No. 84: ''Fieldwork Studies in Targeted Languages'',] 67–87.
* Kirk Miller (2008). [https://www.academia.edu/36533859/Hadza_grammar_notes Hadza Grammar Notes.] Paper presented at the 3rd International Symposium on Khoisan Languages and Linguistics, Riezlern, 7–9 July 2008.
* ———— (2009). [https://www.academia.edu/36533860/Highlights_of_Hadza_Fieldwork Highlights of Hadza fieldwork.] Paper presented at the 83rd Annual Meeting of the Linguistic Society of America, San Francisco, 8–11 January 2009.
* ———— (2016). Hadza Kinship Terms. In Shah & Brenzinger, eds., ''Khoisan Languages and Linguistics: Proceedings of the 5th International Symposium, July 13–17, 2014, Riezlern/Kleinwalsertal.'' Cologne: Rüdiger Köppe, 277–333.
* Bonny Sands (1998). The Linguistic Relationship between Hadza and Khoisan. In Schladt, Matthias (ed.) ''Language, Identity, and Conceptualization among the Khoisan'' (Quellen zur Khoisan-Forschung Vol. 15), Cologne: Rüdiger Köppe, 265–283.
* ———— (2013). Phonetics and phonology: Hadza; Tonology: Hadza; Morphology: Hadza; Syntax: Hadza. In Rainer Vossen, ed., ''The Khoesan Languages''. Oxford: Routledge.
*Sergei Starostin. [http://starling.rinet.ru/cgi-bin/response.cgi?root=new100&morpho=0&basename=new100\hdz\hdz&limit=-1 Hadza basic lexicon.] Global Lexicostatistical Database. [much of the parsing is speculation, and Bleek's posthumous data is unreliable]
* A.N. Tucker, M.A. Bryan & James Woodburn as co-author for Hadza (1977). The East African Click Languages: A Phonetic Comparison. In J.G. Moehlig, Franz Rottland, Bernd Heine, eds, ''Zur Sprachgeschichte und Ethnohistorie in Afrika.'' Berlin: Dietrich Diener.

[[Category:En]]
[[Category:Single language]]

Hadza

2021-01-05T03:33:40Z

Kirk Miller: /* Phonology */

{{InfoboxLanguage
|Language = Hadza
|Autonym = ''Haza, hazane''
|Pronunciation = ɦad͜za
|Ethn15name = Hadza
|Countries = Tanzania
|OfficialLg = none
|OLACname = Hadza
|WALSLoc = 3°45′ S, 35°10′ E
|Speakers = 1,000
|Family = [[isolate]]
|Genus = Hadza
|WritingSyst = none
|ISO3 = hts
}}

Hadza is a language isolate of Tanzania.

=== Location and Speakers ===
Hadza is spoken along the entire eastern shore of alkaline Lake Eyasi, which lies at the base of the Serengeti Plateau in central Tanzania, from Mount Oldeani in the north (just south of Ngorongoro Crater) to the Isanzu agricultural areas in the south. The Hadza do not live at altitudes much above 1500 meters, as they do not build shelters that will ward off the night chill at higher elevations.

There is a small population of Hadza to the west of the lake, in ''Dunduhina'' /duƞtuhina/<ref>This article uses the old IPA letter for a moraic nasal, ⟨ƞ⟩, which was retired because it has no specific phonetic value. In Hadza, the moraic nasal is homorganic with a following consonant.</ref> 'Sukumaland', but their number seems to be decreasing and many only speak Sukuma and Swahili.

There are approximately 1,000 speakers of Hadza, most now bilingual in Swahili. Other second languages include [[Isanzu]] in the south, [[Sukuma]] in the west, and to a lesser degree [[Datooga]] in the center (e.g. near the Yaeda Valley to the southeast of the lake) and [[Iraqw]] on the margins of the Iraqw highlands. The northern Hadza area, around the town of Mangola, was largely monolingual until the introduction of Standard Swahili after independence, though there are loanwords from colonial-era 'upcountry' Swahili.

As of 2005, about 40% of Hadza lived as full-time hunter-gatherers, and language transmission was robust in the areas east of the lake, but since then there have been reports of children speaking Swahili east of the lake, perhaps due to the influx of ''Dunduhinabee'' abandoning their territory in the west.

=== Classification ===
Hadza is a [[language isolate]]. Greenberg classified it as [[Khoisan]] due to its use of [[click consonant]]s. If it were not for the clicks, it's likely that Hadza would have been classified as [[Cushitic]]. Hadza and Sandawe have very similar phonetic inventories and phonotactics, suggesting an old sprachbund. However, the only detected commonalities in vocabulary are old Cushitic loans or perhaps loans that passed from one to the other through Cushitic. Much of the borrowed Cushitic vocabulary is consistent with reconstructions of proto-West Rift.

=== Dialects ===
There do not appear to be any dialects of Hadza, presumably due to the mobility of its speakers. There are some regional differences of vocabulary, however, and speakers note that many more Bantu loans are used in the south.

=== Name ===
"Hadza" is the most common name in the literature. ''Haza'' /ɦad͜za/ simply means 'human being'. The derivative "Hadzane" (/ɦad͜zane/ 'in the manner of the people') is sometimes encountered as the name of the language. The feminine plural ''hazabee'' /ɦad͜zabeʔe/ may be used for the people, though it is usually spelled "Hadzabe" due to devoicing of the final vowel. (The feminine is the inclusive gender in the plural.) "Hadzapi" is the masculine-plural copular form ''hazaphii'' /ɦad͜zapʰiʔi/. "Hatza" and "Hatsa" are older German spellings.

"Tindiga" is from the Swahili name, ''watindiga'' 'people of the marsh grass', presumably named for the large spring in Mangola. The forms ''wahadza'', ''kihadza'' are found instead of ''watindiga'', ''kitindiga'' in recent Swahili publications, but the Hadza do not consider ''watindiga'' to be pejorative. "Kindiga" may be a cognate from one of the local Bantu languages. "Kangeju" (pronounced ''Kangeyu'') is an obsolete German name of unclear origin. The name "Wahi" (pronounced ''Vahi'') found for the western Hadza in Kohl-Larsen is a Sukuma name for the Hadza.

=== Orthography ===
Hadza does not have a written tradition. Two orthographies have seen recent use: the phonetic transcription of Tucker, Bryan & Woodburn (1977), used with some modification by Woodburn and other anthropologists, and the practical orthography of Anyawire et al. (2013). As it is based on the IPA, the Woodburn transcription is more accessible to linguists, while the Anyawire orthography is closer to Sandawe and other written languages of Tanzania. There is evidently some political controversy over the choice of orthography, with Hadza reporting they have been told that if they use the Anyawire orthography they will loose their land. There are two motivations for the Anyawire orthography: the perception that the IPA click letters of the Woodburn transcription portray the Hadza language as bizarre, when the Hadza people already have difficulties with being marginalized and a perception that they are not proper human beings, and the practical issue that the ubiquitous apostrophe of the Woodburn transcription makes it impractical for extended use. The apostrophes are generally omitted by those Hadza who have learned the Woodburn system, with the resulting texts often being unintelligible even to their authors; when the apostrophes are written, they greatly slow down the pace of writing. In the Anyawire orthography, doubled consonants are used for glottalized/ejective consonants and doubled vowels for glottal stop, with the apostrophe only being used for the Swahili convention of ⟨ngʼ⟩ for borrowed /ŋ/.

The Anyawire orthography is used alongside the IPA in this article for accessibility with the Anyawire dictionary. For clarity, an apostrophe will be retained in this article for glottal stop between unlike vowels, e.g. ⟨ae⟩ /ae/ vs ⟨aʼe⟩ /aʔe/. In practice, the Hadza are more likely to write an epenthetic glide between vowels in hiatus, e.g. ⟨aye⟩ for /ae/ vs ⟨ae⟩ for /aʔe/.

=== Phonology ===
Hadza syllable structure is limited to CVN in native words. There are no vowel-initial roots, unless ''h'' is analyzed as an allophone of zero. It is possible that nasal codas are found primarily in loan words and ideophones. This N surfaces as a homorganic nasal when a following consonant has a place of articulation for it to assimilate to, and as nasalization of the vowel before a glottal consonant (glottal stop and ''h''/zero) and pre-pausa. Coda N also appears allophonically before voiced nasal and glottalized nasal clicks. A moraic (syllabic?) nasal is also found word-initially in loans from Bantu and Datooga (and, due to metathesis, in a few Cushitic loans), in which case it may have a different pitch than the following vowel, or may be preceded by an epenthetic vowel; such nasals are analyzed here as NCV sequences rather than as a series of prenasalized consonants. Phonetically, initial #NCV may also occur in shortened forms when the initial hV syllable of a #hVC₂V-shaped word is elided and C₂ is a glottalized nasal click.

==== Stress and tone ====
It is not yet clear whether Hadza has phonemic tone. If it does, it is likely to have a minimal system of the kind often called [[pitch accent]]. Salient stress and pitch are not restricted to a particular syllable; their position may vary between elicitations of at least some words pronounced in isolation, but in some words pitch appears to be fixed. Heavy syllables tend to attract stress but again the pattern is not absolute. There are no known minimal pairs, grammatical or lexical, for stress or pitch. Minimal pairs claimed in the literature have turned out to either not be distinct in pronunciation, or to not be minimal pairs (e.g., one of the words may have an additional morpheme such as the habitual suffix ''-e'', which frequently reduces to vowel length and attracts stress). It may be that some loanwords retain the tone of their source language.

==== Vowels ====
There are five phonemic vowels, which are close to cardinal [a e i o u].

{| class="wikitable" style=text-align:center
|+Hadza vowels
| style="background: white" |
! Front
! Central
! Back
|-
! High
| i || || u
|-
! Mid
| e || || o
|-
! Low
| || a ||
|}

Phonetic nasal vowels, which are not common except before a consonant, are here analyzed as /VN/.

Phonetic long vowels are often sequences, as in ''kaha'' [kaː] ~ [kaɦa] 'to climb'. In some words, however, there is no allomorph with [ɦ], as in ''bôko'' [boːko] 'she' (forms a minimal pair with ''boko'' [boko] 'to be ill') and ''sêta'' [seːta] 'moon'. There is no known minimal set to establish long /Vː/ as distinct from a /VV/ sequence.

The mid vowels /e, o/ tend to rise when a high vowel, /i, u/, occurs in the following syllable, and /e, o/ may merge with /i, u/ in that position. However, such assimilation tends to be optional, even in suffixed pronouns such as ''onebii'' [ʔone̝biʔi] ~ ''unibii'' [ʔunibiʔi] 'we' (masculine, inclusive).

/u/ is relatively uncommon except in loans or due to vowel-height assimilation. /u/ does not occur at all in grammatical morphemes unless the morpheme has a second syllable with vowel /i/, and so is presumably a historical *o in such cases.

Vowels tend to devoice in pre-pausa position after a voiceless consonant. In the highly frequent pattern of word-final -V₁ʔV₁ (where the two vowels are the same, a pattern found in half of all grammatical suffixes and clitics though not frequently elsewhere), the vowel and preceding glottal stop tend to elide completely when pre-pausa, and either elide or reduce to a long vowel before a suffix/clitic or another word.

==== Consonants ====
Hadza has at least 50 productive syllable onsets and several other marginal consonants.

{| class="wikitable" style=text-align:center
|+Principal Hadza consonants (Parentheses: loans. Dark background: may follow a nasal coda.)
! rowspan=2 colspan=2 |
! rowspan=2 | Labial
! rowspan=2 colspan=2 | (Denti-) alveolar
! rowspan=2 | (Post-) alveolar
! rowspan=2 | Palatal
! colspan=2 | Post-velar
! rowspan=2 | Glottal/ placeless
|- class=small
! plain
! labialized
|-
! rowspan=4 | Click
! Aspirated
|
| colspan=2 style="background: silver" |ᵏǀʰ
| style="background: silver" |ᵏǃʰ
| style="background: LightGray" |ᵏǁʰ
| colspan=3 rowspan=4 style="background: white" |
|-
! Tenuis
|
| colspan=2 style="background: silver" |ᵏǀ
| style="background: Gainsboro" |ᵏǃ
| style="background: Gainsboro" |ᵏǁ
|-
! Voiced nasal
|
| colspan=2 | ⁿǀ
| ⁿǃ
| ⁿǁ
|-
! Glottalized nasal
|
| colspan=2 | ⁿǀˀ
| ⁿǃˀ
| ⁿǁˀ
|-
! rowspan=5 | Plosive / affricate
|-
! Ejective
| pʼ
| colspan=2| t͜sʼ
| t͜ʃʼ
| c͜ʎ̥˔ʼ
| k͜xʼ
| k͜xʷʼ
| style="background: white" |
|-
! Aspirated
| style="background: silver" |pʰ
| style="background: silver" |tʰ
| style="background: silver" |t͜sʰ
| style="background: silver" |t͜ʃʰ
| c͜ʎ̥˔ʰ
| style="background: silver" |kʰ
| style="background: silver" |kʷʰ
|
|-
! Tenuis
| style="background: silver" |p
| style="background: silver" |t
| style="background: silver" |t͜s
| style="background: silver" |t͜ʃ
| c͜ʎ̥˔
| style="background: silver" |k
| style="background: silver" |kʷ
| style="background: silver" |ʔ
|-
! Voiced
| b
| (d)
| (d͜z)
| (d͜ʒ)
|
| (ɡ)
| (ɡʷ)
| style="background: white" |
|-
! colspan=2| Nasal
| m
| colspan=2| n
| colspan=2| (ɲ)
| (ŋ)
| (ŋʷ)
| //ƞ//
|-
! colspan=2 | Fricative
| (fʷ)
| ɬ
| s
| ʃ
|
|
|
|
|-
! colspan=2 | Sonorant
|
| colspan=2 | ɺ
|
| j
|
| w
| style="background: silver" | ɦ (zero?)
|}

Consonants in parentheses are thought to be loans, though the voiced obstruents at least are well-integrated and may be spreading to native roots.

Consonants with a medium grey background may follow a coda nasal in the preceding syllable (that is, they may be C₂ in a CVNCV pattern), whereas those on the lightest grey background may not. Alveolar /ǃ/ and lateral /ǁ/ (medium light grey) are not attested in this environment. However, it is suspected these gaps may be accidental, given that only two roots are known with dental /ǀ/ as C₂ after a nasal coda and that these sequences have not yet been investigated in the field. Moreover, the one known case of aspirated lateral /ƞǁʰ/, though its identity was clear when elicited, needs to be confirmed with additional speakers. A word with the same sequence reported in Tucker, Bryan & Woodburn could not be confirmed by Anyawire et al.

The voice-onset time of consonants is reduced after a nasal coda: [[tenuis]] consonants may be partially or completely voiced, and the aspiration of aspirated consonants may be reduced or lost. This is true of clicks as well as of plosives and affricates, and is reflected in both orthographies. There is only a two-way VOT distinction after a nasal coda. A /b/~/p/ distinction has not been found in post-nasal position despite /b/ being native.

Aspiration may only be distinct in the first several syllables of a word. Many speakers distinguish aspirated plosives in only a few words that contrast /k/ and /kʰ/, but maintain a robust aspiration distinction in affricates and clicks. The reason for this asymmetry is unknown.

The glottalized nasal clicks surface as [Ʞʔ] (where ⟨Ʞ⟩ stands for any click release) post-pausa and often as [ŋ͡nʔꞰ] intervocalically. Accounts differ as to whether there is voiceless nasal airflow preceding the click in post-pausa position.

Aspirated clicks may have a delayed and clearly audible posterior release, e.g. [Ʞʰ] ~ [Ʞkʰ]. The audible release has the same post-velar articulation as the ''k''-series of plosives.

The alveolar clicks sound rather palatal with some speakers, and tend to be weakly articulated, though, so far as is known, not slapped as they can be in Sandawe. (Reports of slapped [ǃ¡] clicks in Hadza by a UCLA team in the 1990s could not be confirmed with the UCLA archives, and it would appear that weak/flapped alveolar clicks were erroneously identified with slapped Sandawe clicks that the team had recorded a few weeks earlier.) When intervocalic, nasal alveolar /ⁿǃ/ may surface as, or nearly as, a doubly articulated pulmonic nasal [ŋ͡n]. The lateral clicks, on the other hand, are typically quite salient, and such phonetic reduction has not be noted. They appear to have the same post-alveolar to palatal place of articulation as the lateral affricates. The 'dental' (denti-alveolar) clicks are unremarkable, but are less common than the others.

Among the ejectives, /pʼ/ is uncommon and may be ideophonic. Most other ejectives vary between affricate and fricative realizations. Fricative allophens [sʼ, ʃʼ, xʼ, xʷʼ] have been noted for /t͜sʼ, t͜ʃʼ, k͜xʼ, k͜xʷʼ/. Velar /k͜xʼ/ and /k͜xʷʼ/ also have plosive allophones, [kʼ, kʷʼ], and /k͜xʼ/ has a lateral allophone [k͜ʟ̝̊ʼ]. Ejective /t͜sʼ/ may correspond phonologically to both the plosive and affricate (/t/ and /t͜s/) alveolar series of pulmonic consonants.

The palatal lateral affricates may be pronounced with an alveolar onset, e.g. [t͜ʎ̥˔], or without involving the front of the tongue, e.g. [c͜ʎ̥˔]. Speakers express no preference when hearing these articulations. The relatively uncommon fricative /ɬ/, however, is alveolar; a palatal articulation is not accepted. Given that the fricative may be pronounced as an affricate in some prosodic situations, this means that there is a three-way phonetic place contrast among laterals: [t͜ɬ] vs [t͜ʎ̥˔ ~ c͜ʎ̥˔] and [t͜ʎ̥˔ʼ ~ c͜ʎ̥˔ʼ] vs [k͜ʟ̝̊ʼ].

/ɺ/ is typically realized as [l] post-pausa and [ɾ] elsewhere, though [ɺ] is not uncommon in either position. It tends toward [l] when it occurs as both C1 and C2, as in /ɺoɺa/ (sp. rabbit).

[ɦ] and zero may be allophones. If so, and given that vowel-initial suffixes and clitics may elide a short stem-final vowel, it would be simplest to posit that the phoneme is zero and that [ɦ] is an allophone of zero, rather than that /ɦ/ is elided under some conditions. A predictive conditioning environment for the presence or absence of [ɦ] has not been discovered, but prosody may play a role; even vowel-initial suffixes and clitics may be realized with an initial [ɦ] when given contrastive prosody. Assimilation or bilingualism may be involved in the case of loanwords. For instance, an Isanzu loan for 'snake' was recorded as ''ihato'' /ʔiɦato/ at the beginning of the 20th century (and perhaps in an Isanzu-biligual area) but as ''iyato'' /ʔiato/ at the beginning of the 21st century in Mangola.

The glides /j/ and /w/ are not distinctive next to high front /i/ and back /u/, respectively, and rarely (or uncertainly) distinctive next to mid front /e/ and back /o/. It is possible that medial ''y'' and ''w'' are phonemically /i/ and /u/ and that initial ''y'' and ''w'' are /ʔi/ and /ʔu/. When they occur word-initially, purported /jV, wV/ often appear as [ʔi(j)V] and [ʔu(w)V]. This is true even of a ubiquitous sequential auxiliary (''yamo'' [jamo] ~ ''iamo'' [ʔiamo] in the 3msg posterior (past?) tense). [j] does occur in two object suffixes, and it is not clear if these can be explained away as /i/. In the anthropological and linguistic literature, glides ''y'' and ''w'' are often written between unlike vowels. For example, the 3msg non-past copula clitic ''-ha'' /ɦa/ is often transcribed as ''ya'' after a front vowel and as ''wa'' after a back vowel. (The copula sometimes contains a very clear [ɦ], and pre-pausa even [h] due to final devoicing, but often the /ɦ/ is realized as transitional murmur or possibly elided altogether.)

===== Marginal consonants =====

A labial click, variously reported as [ⁿʘʷ] or [ⁿʘˀ], is found in a single root, ''mcwa-'', that is mimetic for a kiss and often made with an accompanying kiss to the hand. ''Mcwa-'' may be allomorphic with ''ncuwa-'' /ⁿǀua/ 'kiss', with a dental click.

A trill [r] is used by some speakers in some words, such as ''karro'' /karo/ (hunting/sighting name for a female giraffe), perhaps reflecting the pronunciation of the word in the language it was borrowed from. It is replaced with /ɺ/ (''karo'' /kaɺo/) by other speakers.

An implosive [ɓ] is used by some speakers in some words, perhaps reflecting the pronunciation of the word in the source language, though in some instances it might co-occur with ejectives, which would be difficult to explain away as a loan (e.g. ''beggawuko'' /bekx’auko/ 'elephant', apparently [ɓekx’auko] in some recordings). It is replaced with /b/ by other speakers. Other implosives have not been noted.

A fricative [x] occurs lexicalized in an expletive, ''ahho'' [ʔaxo], where otherwise the root is ''akho'' /ʔakʰo/ 'genitals'. (/kʰ/ is commonly realized as [kx].)

Word-initial /mu/ and occasionally /mo/ are optionally realized as syllabic [m̩], for example in the common greeting ''mutana'' ~ ''mtana''. This is a Bantu alternation.

/v/ may occasionally be found in loans, as in mimetic ''vûvuko'' ~ ''fûfuko'' /vuːvuko ~ fuːfuko/ 'propeller toy', though it is normally replaced with /f/. [v] (or perhaps [β]) has been reported for /b/, for example in Bleek's transcriptions of the plural suffixes ''-bee'' and ''-bii'' as 've' and 'vi'.

===== Phonotactics =====
All clicks within a root must be the same, as in /ǀikiɺiƞǀa/ 'pinkie'. Although there is a tendency for click consonants and ejectives to occur as C₁, in a quarter of words with clicks the click occurs only as C₂, and in other words as both C₁ and C₂.

Clicks and ejectives may co-occur, though always in that order. When they co-occur, there appears to be some sibilant/lateral harmony, with a strong tendency for /t͜sʼ/ to occur after denti-alveolar clicks and for /c͜ʎ̥˔ʼ/ to occur after lateral clicks.

When an aspirated consonant occurs more than once in a word, the first instance tends to deaspirate (Grassmann's/Katupha's Law, though generally optional). A coda N may block deaspiration, as in the allomorphs /peǃeǃʰe/ ~ /peƞǃʰeƞǃʰe/ 'to rush'. Repeated NC sequences may loose their nasal segment as well, as in /ƞtʰaɺaƞtʰaɺaʔabiʔi/ ~ /taɺaƞtʰaɺaʔabiʔi/ '(arrow) barbs'. It is not clear to what extent these patterns hold if the aspirated consonants are different rather than repeated phonemes.

===Swadesh lists===
Only roots are given below. For example, the word for 'name', given here as the root ''akhana'', is actually feminine plural ''akhanabee''.

====Wichmann & Holman basic 40-word list (ordered by stability)====

#louse ''ccamazzi'' /ⁿǀˀamat͜sʼi/<ref>cf. ''ccezze'' /ⁿǀˀet͜s’e/ 'tick'</ref>
#two ''piye'' /pie/, ''konxa'' /koⁿǁa/ (verb)
#water ''ati'' /ʔati/ (mpl; msg = 'rain, river')
#ear ''hajjapitchi'' /ɦat͜ʃ’apit͜ʃʰi/<ref>from ''hazzape'' /ɦat͜s’ape/ 'leaf'?</ref>
#to die ''taxxi'' /taⁿǁˀi/, ''misi'' /misi/ (Datooga?)
#I *one /ʔone/, */-ko/<ref>If *-ko-a > /-kʷa/ rather than *-kʷa-ʔV > /-koʔo/.</ref>
#liver ''xxe'' /ⁿǁˀe/
#eye ''akhwa'' /ʔakʷʰa/
#hand, arm ''ukhwa'' /ʔukʷʰa/
#hear ''nxaʼe'' /ⁿǁaʔe/
#tree ''zziti'' /t͜s’iti/
#fish ''ccama'' /ⁿǀˀama/, ''ccara'' /ⁿǀˀaɺa/
#name ''akhana'' /ʔakʰana/
#stone ''haqqa'' /ɦaⁿǃˀa/
#tooth ''aha'' /ʔaɦa/
#breast ''iriba'' /ʔiɺiba/ ('breasts, milk'. Cushitic); ''ggazza'' /k͜x’at͜s’a/ ('flesh at sternum')
#thou ''the'' /tʰe/, /-en-/ (m), /-n-/ (f)
#path ''yeke'' /jeke/
#bone ''midla'' /mic͜ʎ̥˔’a/ (cf. Dahalo)
#tongue ''ncata'' /ⁿǀata/
#skin ''ahu'' /ʔaɦu/
#night ''zzifi'' /t͜s’ifi/ (m; f = 'day')
#leaf ''hazzape'' /ɦat͜s’ape/
#rain = 'water' (msg = 'rain, river'; mpl = 'water')
#kill ''xô'' /ǁoː/
#blood ''athama'' /ʔatʰama/
#horn ''roo'' /ɺoʔo/
#person ''haza'' /ɦad͜za/ (human), ''unu'' /ʔunu/ (person)
#knee ''guringuri'' /ɡuɺiƞɡuɺi/ ~ ''gurunguri'' /ɡuɺuƞɡuɺi/ (Cushitic? pan-African)
#one ''itchâme'' /ʔit͜ʃʰaːme/
#nose ''intawe'' /ʔiƞtʰawe/
#full ''ggaʼe'' /k͜x’aʔe/, *cco- /ⁿǀˀo-/
#come ''za'' /d͜za/ (Bantu), ''botco'' /bot͜ʃo/ (stem of imperative)
#star ''ntsa'' /ƞt͜sʰa/, ''sa'' /sa/ (Cushitic?)<ref>Anyawire et al. (2013) only found ''ntsa''. Tucker et al. (1977) report ''sa'' 'star', and Woodburn confirms the form he knows does not have a nasal onset. /ƞ/ + /sa/ would generate /ƞt͜sʰa/. Indeed, speakers do not care if the latter is written ''ntsa'' or ''nsa''. There are several Cushitic loanwords that have an onset that varies as C ~ NC in Hadza where the source language is only reconstructed with C.</ref>
#mountain ''xxudle'' /ⁿǁˀuc͜ʎ̥˔’e/
#fire ''zzoko'' /t͜s’oko/
#we (exclusive) ''ô'' /ʔoː/, /-j-/
#to drink ''fa'' /fʷa/
#to see ''chî'' /ǀʰiː/ ~ ''cî'' /ǀiː/
#bark ''heggwa'' /ɦek͜xʷ’a/
#new ''zana'' /d͜zana/<ref>from ''za'' 'come'?</ref>
#dog ''xhaano'' /ǁʰaʔano/, ''tîngi'' /tiːƞki/
#sun ''isho'' /ʔiʃo/

===Notes===
<references/>

===Bibliography===

* Mariamu Anyawire, G.G. Bala, Kirk Miller (ed.) & Bonny Sands (2013). ''A Hadza Lexicon'' (ms).
* Roger Blench (2008). [https://web.archive.org/web/20110721180216/http://www.rogerblench.info/Language%20data/Khoesan/Blench%20paper%20Riezlern%202008.pdf Hadza Animal Names.] Paper presented at the 3rd International Symposium on Khoisan Languages and Linguistics, Riezlern, 7–9 July 2008.
* Niklas Edenmyr (2004). [https://web.archive.org/web/20070706040409/http://www.african.gu.se/aa/pdfs/aa04003.pdf The semantics of Hadza gender assignment: a few notes from the field.] ''Africa & Asia'', no. 4, Department of Oriental and African languages, Göteborg University, 3–19.
* Edward Elderkin (1978). Loans in Hadza: internal evidence from consonants. ''Occasional Papers'' 3, Dar es Salaam.
* Peter Ladefoged, Ian Maddieson & Bonny Sands (1991). [http://archive.phonetics.ucla.edu/Language/HTS/hts.html Hadza wordlist and sound files]. UCLA Phonetics Lab Archive.
* ———— (1993). [https://www.academia.edu/17743030/The_phonetic_structures_of_Hadza The Phonetic Structures of Hadza.] In [http://repositories.cdlib.org/uclaling/wpp/No84/ ''UCLA Working Papers in Phonetics'' No. 84: ''Fieldwork Studies in Targeted Languages'',] 67–87.
* Kirk Miller (2008). [https://www.academia.edu/36533859/Hadza_grammar_notes Hadza Grammar Notes.] Paper presented at the 3rd International Symposium on Khoisan Languages and Linguistics, Riezlern, 7–9 July 2008.
* ———— (2009). [https://www.academia.edu/36533860/Highlights_of_Hadza_Fieldwork Highlights of Hadza fieldwork.] Paper presented at the 83rd Annual Meeting of the Linguistic Society of America, San Francisco, 8–11 January 2009.
* ———— (2016). Hadza Kinship Terms. In Shah & Brenzinger, eds., ''Khoisan Languages and Linguistics: Proceedings of the 5th International Symposium, July 13–17, 2014, Riezlern/Kleinwalsertal.'' Cologne: Rüdiger Köppe, 277–333.
* Bonny Sands (1998). The Linguistic Relationship between Hadza and Khoisan. In Schladt, Matthias (ed.) ''Language, Identity, and Conceptualization among the Khoisan'' (Quellen zur Khoisan-Forschung Vol. 15), Cologne: Rüdiger Köppe, 265–283.
* ———— (2013). Phonetics and phonology: Hadza; Tonology: Hadza; Morphology: Hadza; Syntax: Hadza. In Rainer Vossen, ed., ''The Khoesan Languages''. Oxford: Routledge.
*Sergei Starostin. [http://starling.rinet.ru/cgi-bin/response.cgi?root=new100&morpho=0&basename=new100\hdz\hdz&limit=-1 Hadza basic lexicon.] Global Lexicostatistical Database. [much of the parsing is speculation, and Bleek's posthumous data is unreliable]
* A.N. Tucker, M.A. Bryan & James Woodburn as co-author for Hadza (1977). The East African Click Languages: A Phonetic Comparison. In J.G. Moehlig, Franz Rottland, Bernd Heine, eds, ''Zur Sprachgeschichte und Ethnohistorie in Afrika.'' Berlin: Dietrich Diener.

[[Category:En]]
[[Category:Single language]]

Tschetschenisch

2021-01-04T08:35:00Z

Kirk Miller: comment-out useless infobox

Zusammen mit [[Inguschisch]] und [[Batsbi]] (Tsova-Tush) bildet '''Tschetschenisch''' den [[Nach]]-Zweig der Nach-Dagestanischen Sprachfamilie. Tschetschenisch wird in der tschetschenischen Republik in Nordostkaukasus in Russland gesprochen. Alle Sprecher, die bis etwa 65-70 Jahre alt sind, beherrschen auch noch [[Russisch]].
Die Schriftsprache wurde nach der Oktoberrevolution 1917 geschaffen, und seit 1938 wird das kyrillische Alphabet statt des lateinischen verwendet.

== Phonologie==
Das Tschetschenische verwendet 32 Konsonanten und 15 Vokale. Es gibt außerdem eine große Zahl von Diphthongen. Die Silbenstruktur ist CV, CVC, es kommt auch VC vor, aber selten. Die wichtigsten phonologische Alternationen sind Konsonantenwechsel, Reduktion und Ablaut.

'''Anmerkung:''' In linguistischen Arbeiten zum Tschetschenischen verwendet man nicht die [[IPA]]-Transkription, sondern eine von [[Johanna Nichols]] entwickelte Umschrift in lateinischen Buchstaben.

== Morphologie==
Tschetschenisch ist eine [[Ergativsprache|ergativische]] und [[agglutinierende Sprache]]. Der [[Kasus]] wird zur Markierung der Nomen verwendet, die [[Nominalklasse]] des Subjekts oder direkten Objekts wird am Verb markiert. Zur [[Subordination]] werden [[Partizip]]ien, [[Masdar]] (nominalisiertes Verb) und [[Konverb]]en verwendet. Adverbiale Funktionen wie Vor-und Nachzeitigkeit werden durch Konverben augedrückt. Es gibt mehrere [[Aspekt (Linguistik)|Aspektarten]] im Tschetschenischen. Die Verben des '''temporären''' Aspekts beschreiben die einmalige Handlung, die sich nicht wiederholt, durch Verben des '''iterativen''' Aspekts werden die Handlungen ausgedrückt, die sich ohne Beschränkung wiederholen können.
{|
|-
|width=45 align='right'|1.|| ''mala''||
|-
| ||trinken (einmal)||
|-
|}
{|
|-
| width=45 align='right'| 2.||''meela''||
|-
| ||trinken (mehrmals)
|-
|}
In der Kategorie [[Tempus]] wird [[Präsens]] (nicht [[progressiv]]), einfaches [[Präteritum]], Präteritum (selbst erfahrenes Ereignis), [[Imperfekt]], [[Plusquamperfekt]], [[Perfekt]], Präsens Progressiv, Präteritum Progressiv, [[Futur I]], [[Futur II]] unterschieden. Das Tschetschenische besitzt die Modusformen [[Indikativ]], [[Imperativ]] und [[Optativ]]. Der Imperativ hat drei Formen, einen einfachen Imperativ, einen schwachen Imperativ sowie einen höflichen Imperativ. Perfektive und imperfektive Aspektarten werden im Tschetschenischen durch Tempusformen ausgedrückt.

==== Nomen====
===== Kasus =====

Es gibt acht grundlegende Kasusformen und daneben noch fünf Formen, die vom Allativkasus abgeleitet sind und die Richtung, Lage und Herkunft anzeigen. Wenn der Stamm des Nomens auf einen Konsonant endet und die Kasusendung mit einem Konsonant beginnt, wird ein Vokal ''-a'' dazwischen eingefügt, z.B., ''q'olam'' (Bleistift) plus Komparativendung ''-l'': ''q'olam-'''al'''''.
{| class="wikitable"
! 
! Singular
! Plural
|-
! '''[[Absolutiv]]'''
| -∅
| -sh, -j, -ie
|-
! '''[[Genitiv]]'''
| -(a)n
| -sh-i(n)
|-
! '''[[Ergativ]]'''
| -uo, -s
| -a
|-
! '''[[Dativ]]'''
| -na
| -sh-na
|-
! '''[[Instrumental]]'''
| -ca
| -sh-ca
|-
! '''[[Lativ]]'''
| -x
| -ie-x
|-
! '''[[Komparativ]]'''
| -l
| -ie-l
|-
! '''[[Allativ]]'''
| -ga, ie
| -sh-ga
|}

Im Ergativkasus wird das Suffix ''-uo'' häufiger verwendet als das Suffix ''-s''. Das Suffix ''-s'' wird mit einer bestimmten Gruppe von Nomen (abhängig vom Dialekt), einschließlich Namen, verwendet.

===== Nominalklasse =====
Es gibt vier lexikalisch determinierte Nominalklassen im Tschetschenischen. Sie werden folgendermaßen markiert:
{| {{prettytable}}
! Nominalklasse
! Singular
! Plural
|-
! I
| v-
| b-/d
| nur zur Markierung der männlichen Personen
|-
! II
| -j
| rowspan='3' | b-
| hauptsächlich zur Markierung der weiblichen Personen
|-
! III
| b-
| zur Markierung der Tiere und unbelebten Gegenstände
|-
! IV
| d-
| zur Markierung einiger Personen (z. B. Kind, Braut), der Tiere und unbelebten Gegenstände
|-
|}

Es ist nicht ganz klar, zu welcher Klasse unbelebte Gegenstände und Tiere gehören. Alle Lehnwörter, die vom Russischen übernommen wurden und ihre ursprüngliche Form nicht geändert haben, gehören zu Klasse '''II'''. Die Klasse des Nomens hat Auswirkung auf die zugehörige Verbalform und wird als Präfix am Verb markiert. Bei den [[Transitivität|transitiven Verben]], falls kein Hilfsverb vorhanden ist (abhängig von Tempusform), kongruiert das Verb mit dem direktem Objekt. Bei intransitiven Verben kongruiert das Verb mit dem Subjekt.
{|
|-
|width=45px align='right'|3.||''k'ant(V)''||'''''v'''-oedu''||
|-
| ||Junge.ABS'''1'''||V-gehen.PRS||
|-
| ||colspan='3'|'Der Junge geht'||
|-
|}
{|
|-
|width=45px align='right'|4.||''jowas''||''xudar(D)''||'''''d'''-u'u'''''||
|-
| ||Mädchen.ERG||Brei.ABS||D-essen.PRS
|-
| ||colspan='3'|'Das Mädchen isst den Brei'||
|-
|}

'''1Anmerkung:''' alle Abkürzungen dieser Art sind unter [http://www.eva.mpg.de/lingua/files/morpheme.html The Leipzig Glossing Rules] zu finden.

===== Numerus =====
Substantive werden im Tschetschenischen für Singular und Plural flektiert. Der Singular ist unmarkiert und zur Markierung des Plurals wird ein Suffix ''-(a)sh'' verwendet, z.B.: ''qoor'' - ''qoor'''ash''''' (Birne - Birnen). Es gibt aber eine Gruppe von Nomen, die die Pluralform durch [[Suppletion]] bilden, z.B.: '''''jett''''' - '''''hweeli''''' (Kuh - Kühe) oder '''''stag''''' - '''''naax''''' (Mensch - Leute).

=== Verb ===
Es gibt eine Reihe von Verbformen: Infinitiv, Imperativ, Partizipien, Konverben, Masdar (nominalisiertes Verb). Am Verb können Nominalklasse: vier Nominalklassen, Tempus, Aspekt, Modus sowie derivationelle Verbformen (Kausativ, Doppel-Kausativ, direkter/indirekter Kausativ) markiert werden. Es gibt transitive, intransitive, ditransitive und inverse Verben (Verben mit Dativsubjekt).

==== Transitive/intransitive Verben ====
Tschetschenische Verben werden entweder als transitiv oder intransitiv kategorisiert. Transitive Verben haben ein direktes Objekt, auf das die Handlung einwirkt oder das als Ergebnis der Handlung vorliegt. Das Subjekt bei transitiven Verben steht immer im Ergativ. Das transitive Verb kongruiert in der [[Nominalklasse]] mit dem direkten Objekt, das Objekt steht im Absolutiv. Die Kongruenz wird als Präfix am Verb markiert.

{|
|-
|width=45px align='right'|5.||''k'antas''||''kiexat''||''doeshu''||
|-
| ||Junge.ERG||Brief.ABS||D.lesen.PRS||
|-
| ||colspan='3'|'Der Junge liest den Brief'||
|-
|}
Bei den intransitiven Verben steht das Subjekt im Absolutiv und, es gibt kein das direktes Objekt. Das intransitive Verb kongruiert in der Nominalklasse mit dem Subjekt. Die Kongruenz wird ebenfalls als Präfix am Verb markiert.
{|
|-
| width=45px align='right'|6.||''hwooza''||'' dieka ''||''bieshahw''
|-
| ||Vogel.ABS||D.singen.PRS||Garten.LOC
|-
| ||colspan='3'|'Der Vogel singt im Garten.'
|-
|}

==== Ditransitive Verben ====
Ditransitive Verben besitzen drei Argumente: Subjekt, direktes Objekt und indirektes Objekt. Es gibt zwei Typen von ditransitiven Verben im Tschetschenischen. Bei den Verben ''nehmen'', ''geben'' und ''sagen'' steht das indirekte Objekt entweder im Allativ oder im Dativ. Das Verb kongruiert mit dem direktem Objekt. Das Ziel der Handlung ist das indirekte Objekt und meist belebt.
{|
|-
| width=45px align='right'|7 a.||''Zaras''||'' '''suna'''''||'' kniga''||'' j-alla''||
|-
| ||Zara.ERG||1s.DAT||Buch.ABS||J-geben.PRF||
|-
| ||colspan='4'|' Zara hat mir ein Buch gegeben (geschenkt).'
|-
|}
{|
|-
| width=45px align='right' |b.||''Zaras''||'' '''soega'''''||'' kniga''||'' j-alla''||
|-
| ||Zara.ERG||1s.ALL||Buch.ABS||J-geben.PRF||
|-
| ||colspan='4'|' Zara hat mir ein Buch gegeben (geborgt).'
|-
|}
Bei den Verben, wie ''jmd. anziehen'', ''schlagen'', die einen physischen Kontakt bezeichnen, muss das indirekte Objekt im Dativ stehen.
{|
|-
| width=45px align='right' |8.||''Nanas''||'' bierana''||'' koch''||'' t'ajux''
|-
| ||Mutter.ERG||Kind.DAT||Kleid.ABS||anziehen.PRS
|-
| ||colspan='4'|'Die Mutter zieht das Kleid dem Kind an.'
|-
|}

==== Inverse Verben====
Inverse Verben oder Verben mit Dativsubjekt sind im Tschetschenischen die Modalverben und die Verben der Emotionen. In der Regel steht das Subjekt im Dativ, das Objekt ist immer im Absolutiv, falls eins vorhanden ist.
{|
|-
| width=45px align='right' |9.||''suona ''||'' xazaxieta''||'' iz''
|-
| ||1s.DAT||gefallen.PRS||3s.ABS
|-
| ||colspan='3'|'Er gefällt mir.'
|-
|}

== Syntax ==
Die vorherrschende, aber nicht obligatorische Wortstellung ist SOV ([[Subjekt]] - [[Objekt]] - [[Verb]]). Die verbale Derivation im Tschetschenischen betrifft hauptsächlich die Subjekte. Die ditransitivierende Prozesse und antipassive Konstruktion verändern den Kasus des Subjekts zum Absolutiv, falls das Subjekt nicht ohnehin im Absolutiv ist. Die valenzverändernden Prozesse, die zur Transitivierung des Verbs führen, fügen ergative Subjekte hinzu. Die Derivation fügt neue Argumente hinzu oder verändert den Kasus von Argumenten, die bereits vorhanden sind.

=== Kausativ mit Suffix –(i)it, -ijt ===

Das Kausativ wird mit dem Suffix '''–(i)it''' oder '''-ijt''' (abhängig vom Verbstamm) gebildet. Die historische Bedeutung des Suffixes kommt von '''viita ''', was ''"lassen, zwingen, verursachen"'' bedeutet. Das Suffix ist sowohl mit transitiven als auch intransitiven Verben verwendbar und fügt einen [[Kausator]] als neues Subjekt hinzu, das dann den Ergativ erhält. Das Subjekt des '''intransitiven''' Verbs, das zuvor im Absolutiv war, bleibt in diesem Kasus und erscheint als Objekt. '''ABS=ABS, + ERG'''
{|
|-
| width=45px align='right' | 10 a. || ''k'ant'' || ''v-oed-u''
|-
| || Junge(V).ABS || V-gehen-PRS
|-
| || colspan='2' | ‘Der Junge geht.’
|-
|}
{|
|-
| width=45px align='right' | b. || ''as'' || ''k'ant'' || ''v-ox-'''ijt'''-u''
|-
| || 1s.ERG || Junge(V).ABS || V-gehen-CAUS-PRS ||
|-
| || colspan='3' | ‘Ich lasse den Jungen gehen / ich veranlasse den Jungen zu gehen’ ||
|-
|}
Bei den '''transitiven''' Verben wird das Subjekt, das zuvor im Ergativ war, zum Allativ und erscheint als indirektes Objekt. Ein neues Subjekt im Ergativ wird eingefügt. Das Patiens bleibt das direkte Objekt. '''ERG→ALL, + ERG'''
{|
|-
| width=45px align='right' | 12 a.||''bier-as''||''shura''||''mol-u''
|-
| || Kind-ERG || Milch.ABS || trinken-PRS
|-
| ||colspan="3"| ‘Das Kind trinkt Milch’
|-
|}
{|
|-
| width=45px align='right' | b.|| ''as'' || ''bier-aga'' || ''shura'' || ''mol-'''ijt'''-u''
|-
| || 1s.ERG || Kind-ALL || Milch.ABS || trinken-CAUS-PRS
|-
| ||colspan="4" |‘Ich lasse das Kind Milch trinken’
|-
|}
Bei '''inversen''' Verben, bei denen das Subjekt immer im Dativ verwendet wird, wird ein neues Subjekt im Ergativ eingefügt und das Dativsubjekt behält seinen Kasus, erscheint aber als indirektes Objekt. '''DAT=DAT, + ERG'''
{|
|-
| width=45px align='right' | 13 a.||''hwuna''||''surt''||''go''
|-
| || 2s.DAT||Bild.ABS||sehen.PRS
|-
| ||colspan='3' |‘Du siehst ein Bild’ ||
|-
|}
{|
|-
| width=45px align='right' | b.||''as ''||''hwuna''||''surt''||''go-'''it'''-u''
|-
| || 1s.ERG || 2s.DAT || Bild.ABS || sehen-CAUS-PRS
|-
| ||colspan='4'| ‘Ich zeige dir ein Bild/ich lasse dich ein Bild sehen‘ ||
|}

=== Kausativ mit Suffix –''duo'' ===
Das Suffix -'''duo''' bedeutet ''etwas machen'', ''tun'', ''schaffen''. Dieses Suffix wird verwendet, wenn das eingefügte Agens im Ergativ auf das Patiens im Absolutiv direkt physisch einwirkt. Diese Form zeigt, dass der Agens direkt auf das Objekt einwirkt. Bei intransitiven Verben wird ein neues Subjekt im Ergativ hinzugefügt und das vorherige Subjekt wird zum direkten Objekt und behält seinen Absolutivkasus. Das intransitive Verb bekommt dadurch einen transitiven Status. Bei transitiven Verben wird ebenfalls ein neues Argument im Ergativ hinzugefügt und das vorherige Subjekt erhält den Dativ.
{|
|-
| width=45px aligh='right' | 14||''Zara-s'' ||''san''||''korta''||''laza-'''b-o'''''||
|-
| || Zara-ERG || mein || Kopf(B).ABS || schmerzen-B-machen-PRS ||
|-
| ||colspan='4'| ‘Zara verursacht, dass mein Kopf schmerzt’ || (intransitiv → transitiv)
|-
|}
{|
|-
| width=45px aligh='right' | 15||''ahw'' ||''bierana''||''shura''||''mola-'''j-o'''''||
|-
| || 2s.ERG || Kind.DAT || Milch.ABS || trinken-J-machen ||
|-
| ||colspan='4'|‘Du veranlasst das Kind Milch zu trinken.’|| (transitiv → ditransitiv)
|}

=== Direkter/indirekter Kausativ ===
Man unterscheidet zwischen direktem und indirektem Kausativ im Tschetschenischen. Man verwendet den direkten Kausativ, wenn der Verursacher eine direkte physische Wirkung auf das frühere Subjekt der Handlung ausübt. Im Beispiel 16 a. lässt Zaras physikalische Aktivität das Kind den Brei essen, z.B.: Das Kind ist nicht in der Lage selbst den Brei zu essen und Zara füttert es mit dem Löffel. Beim direkten Kausativ steht das indirekte Objekt (das frühere Subjekt der Handlung) im Dativ und das direkte Objekt im Absolutiv.

Der indirekte Kausativ wird verwendet, wenn das Subjekt eine Wirkung auf das indirekte Objekt (das frühere Subjekt der Handlung) verursacht, aber die Wirkung nicht vom Subjekt direkt ausgeführt wird. Das direkte Objekt behält seinen Absolutivkasus und das indirekte Objekt erscheint jetzt im Allativ.
{|
|-
| width=45px align='right' |16 a. ||''Zaras''||''berana''||''xudar''||'' da'a'''-do'''''||
|-
| || Zara.ERG ||Kind.DAT||Brei.ABS||essen-CAUS||
|-
| ||colspan='4'|'Zara füttert das Kind mit dem Brei'|| (→ direkter Kausativ)
|-
|}
{|
|-
| width=45px align='right' |b.||''Zaras''||''beraga''||''xudar''||''do'a-'''itu'''''||
|-
| ||Zara.ERG||Kind.ALL||Brei.ABS||essen-CAUS.PRS||
|-
| ||colspan='5'|'Zara lässt das Kind Brei essen'|| (→ indirekter Kausativ)
|-
|}

=== Doppel-Kausativ ===
Aus beiden kausativen Suffixen '''''-duo''''' und '''''-(i)t''''' kann man den Doppel-Kausativ bilden. Doppel-Kausative sind unbeschränkt, sie sind sowohl für transitive als auch intransitive Verben verwendbar. Wenn die zwei Suffixe zusammen auftreten, kommt das '''''-(i)t''''' immer nach dem Suffix '''''-duo'''''. Die Bedeutung ist ‘X veranlasst Y, Z zu veranlassen, V zu tun’. ein neues Subjekt im Ergativ wird hinzugefügt und ein neues Kausatum im Allativ oder im Dativ. Das ehemalige Subjekt des transitiven Verbs erhält den Dativ. '''ERG → DAT, + ERG, + ALL'''
{|
|-
| width=45px align='right'|17.|| ''Nana-s''||''bier-ana''||''hwoe-ga''||''shura''||''mola-'''j-a-it'''-u''|| (mit transitivem Verb)
|-
| || Mutter.ERG||Kind-DAT||2s-ALL || Milch(J).ABS || trinken-J-machen-CAUS-PRS||
|-
| ||colspan='5'|Die Mutter veranlasst dich, das Kind zu veranlassen, Milch zu trinken.||
|-
|}
{|
|-
| width=45px align='right'|18.||''cuo''||''san''||''korta''||laza-'''b-a-it''''|| (mit intransitivem Verb)
|-
| ||3s.ERG || 1s.GEN || Kopf(B).ABS || schmerzen-B-machen-CAUS ||
|-
| ||colspan='4'|‘Er veranlasst (etwas/jmdn.), meinen Kopf zu veranlassen zu schmerzen’||
|
|}
{|
|-
| width=45px align='right'|19.||''as''||''hwo''||''cunna''||''j-eza-'''j-ol-ijt'''-u''|| (mit inversem Verb)
|-
| ||1s.ERG||2s.(J)ABS|| 3s.DAT||J-gefallen-J-machen-CAUS-PRS||
|-
| ||colspan='4'|‘Ich veranlasse dich zu verursachen, dass du ihm gefällst.’||
|-
|}

=== Reflexiv ===
Das Possessivreflexiv ist einfach die Genitivform des Reflexivpronomens. Es gibt keinen Unterschied im syntaktischen Verhalten bei Possessor- oder Aktantenreflexivierung. Beide werden fast ausnahmslos vom Subjekt kontrolliert, unabhängig von dessen Kasus. Die folgenden Beispiele haben Ergativsubjekte von transitiven Verben.
{|
|-
| width=45px align='right' | 20. || ''Zaras'' || '''''sheina''''' || ''koch''||''ecna''||
|-
| || Zara.ERG ||3s.REFL.DAT||Kleid.ABS|| kaufen.PRF||
|-
| || colspan='4'|Zara hat sich ein Kleid gekauft.'||
|-
|}
{|
|-
| width=45px align='right' | 21. || ''Zaras'' || '''''shie''''' ||''jowana''|| ''koch''||''ecna''||
|-
| || Zara.ERG ||3s.REFL.GEN||Tochter.DAT||Kleid.ABS|| kaufen.PRF||
|-
| || colspan='5'|Zara hat ihrer Tochter ein Kleid gekauft.'||
|-
|}

=== Reziprok ===
Das Pronomen '''vovsha''', was übersetzt ''einander'' bedeutet, verhält sich syntaktisch wie ein Pronomen und wird wie ein Nomen dekliniert.
{|
|-
|width=45px align='right'|22.||''ysh''||'' '''vovshashca'''''|| ''ca''||''mega''||
|-
| ||3p.ABS|| einander.INSTR|| NEG|| mögen.PRS||
|-
| ||colspan='4' |'Sie können einander nicht ertragen.'||
|-
|}
{|
|-
|width=45px align='right'|23.||'''''vovshashna'''''||''xazxietar ''||''da''||
|-
| ||einander.DAT||Gefallen.ABS||tun||
|-
| ||colspan='3'|'einander einen Gefallen tun'||
|-
|}
Es gibt eine reguläre Kasusform von diesem Pronomen '''vovshax''', was ebenfalls ''auseinander'' oder ''einander'' bedeutet und wird als Präfix am Verb markiert. Die Kasusform von diesem Pronomen ist Lativ.
{|
|width=45px align='right'|24.||'''''vovshax'''-daaqa''||
|-
| ||auseinander-nehmen||
|-
|}
{|
|width=45px align='right'|25.||'''''vovshax'''-qieta''||
|-
| ||einander treffen||
|-
|}

=== Ambitransitiv ===
Es gibt eine Gruppe von Verben, die sowohl transitiv als auch intransitiv verwendbar sind, ohne dass eine morphologische Veränderung stattfindet. Diese Gruppe von Verben nennt man [[Ambitransitiv|ambitransitive Verben]]. Alle im Tschetschenischen vorkommenden ambitransitiven Verben zeigen eine Zustandsveränderung des Patiens an.
{|
|-
|width=45px align='right'|26 a.||''as''||''kad''||''xi-x''||''b-uz-u''||
|-
| ||1s.ERG|| Tasse(B).ABS ||Wasser-LAT||B-füllen-PRS||
|-
| ||colspan='4'|‘Ich fülle die Tasse mit Wasser’||
|-
|}
{|
|-
|width=45px align='right'| b.||'' kad''||''(xi-x)''||''b-uz-u''||
|-
| ||Tasse(B).ABS||(Wasser.LAT)||B-füllen-PRS||
|-
| ||colspan='3'|‘Die Tasse füllt sich (mit Wasser)’||
|-
|}

=== Antipassiv===
Im Tschetschenischen gibt es keine speziellen Verbformen, Suffixe oder Präfixe, die antipassive Bedeutung ausdrücken. Die Antipassivbedeutung wird nur anhand des unterschiedlichen Kongruenzverhaltens deutlich. Im aktiven transitiven Satz kongruieren sowohl die Kopula wie auch das Hauptverb mit dem direkten Objekt (Bsp. 27 a.). Im antipassivischen Satz kongruiert die Kopula mit dem Subjekt, das Hauptverb aber weiterhin mit dem direkten Objekt. Das direkte Objekt kann dann weggelassen werden. In der Kaukasistik ist diese Konstruktion auch als "[[Doppelabsolutiv-Konstruktion]]" bekannt.

A → S (ERG→ABS)
P → Ø
{|
|-
|width=45 align='right'|27 a.||''as ('''d''')''||''kiexat''||'''''d'''-azdie-sh''||'''''d-u'''''||
|-
| ||1s.ERG||Brief(D).ABS||D-schreiben-CVBsim||D-COP||
|-
| ||colspan='4'|‘Ich schreibe einen Brief’||
|-
|}
{|
|-
|width=45 align='right'|b.||''suo ('''j''')''||'' (kiexat ('''d'''))''||'''''d'''-azde-sh''||'''''j'''-u''||
|-
| ||1s.ABS(J)|| (Brief(D).ABS|| D-schreiben-CVBsim||J-COP||
|-
| ||colspan='4'|‘Ich schreibe (einen Brief)’||
|-
|}

Bei Verben mit Dativsubjekt erhält dieses Subjekt im Antipassiv ebenfalls den Absolutiv, das direkte Objekt kann jedoch nicht weggelassen werden. Das Kongruenzverhalten ist bei beiden Verbarten gleich.

{|
|-
|width=45 align='right' |28 a.||''souna''||'' iza ('''v''')''||'''v'''-iez-a''||
|-
| ||1s.DAT||3s.ABS(V)|| V-lieben/brauchen-PRS||
|-
| ||colspan='3'|‘Ich liebe/brauche ihn’||
|-
|}
{|
|-
|width=45 align='right'|b.||''suo ('''j''')''||''iz ('''v''')''||'''''v'''-ieza-sh''||'''''j'''-u''||
|-
| ||1s.ABS(J)|| 3s.ABS(V)||V-lieben-CVBsim||J-COP||
|-
| ||colspan='4'|‘Ich liebe/brauche ihn’||
|-
|}

=== Inchoativ ===
Die grundlegende Bedeutung des Suffixes '''''-dala''''' ist der Anfang der Handlung. Die Form des Suffix ist durch das Tempus und den Aspekt bestimmt und enthält auch ein Kongruenzmorphem. Im Präsens wird es zum Ausdrücken der Handlung, die gerade anfängt, verwendet. Im Perfekt bedeutet es die Abgeschlossenheit der Handlung.
{|
|-
|width=45px align='right'| 29.||''san ''||''korta ''||''laza-'''boal'''''
|-
| ||1s.GEN||Kopf.ABS||schmerzen-anfangen.PRS||
|-
| ||colspan='3'|'Mein Kopf fängt an zu schmerzen.'||
|-
|}
{|
|-
|width=45px align='right'| 30.||''san ''||''korta ''||''laza-'''bial'''-ar''
|-
| ||1s.GEN||Kopf.ABS||schmerzen-anfangen-WIT.PST||
|-
| ||colspan='3'|'Mein Kopf hat angefangen zu schmerzen'||
|-
|}

== Literatur ==
*Nichols, J. (1994) 'Chechen' in ''The indigenous languages of the caucasus'' Vol.4, Ed. Rieks Smeets; New York
*Nichols, J. (1982) ‘Ingush transitivisation and detransitivisation’ ''BLS'' 8:445-462
*Nichols, J.(1985) ‘Switch-reference causatives’ CLS 21:2 ''Papers from the Parasession on Causatives and Agentivity:'' 193-203
*Payne,Th.E. (2006) '''Exploring language structure: a student’s guide’'' 258-264 Cambridge University Press
* Rajabov, R. "[http://www.auditorium.ru/books/2270/gl28.pdf The double-absolutive construction in Tsez]"

[[Category:De]]
[[Category:Single language]]
[[Category:Nakh-Daghestanian]]

Runyankore

2021-01-04T08:29:29Z

Kirk Miller: comment-out useless infobox

Runyankore (ISO 639-3: nyn) ist eine [[Bantu]]sprache und wird von den Nyankore, der dritt größten von 43 Ethnien in Uganda gesprochen.

==Klassifikation==
'''Runyankore''' ist eine afrikanische Sprache und gehört der Niger-Congo Sprachfamilie an, weist aber nilotische Einflüsse in manchen Wortstämmen auf. Seit 1990 gibt es die Bezeichnung '''Runyakitara''' für die vier verwandten Sprachen in Uganda: Runyoro ( Nyoro), Rutooro (Tooro), Rukiga (Chiga) und Runyankore (Nyankore).

==Geographische Verteilung==
Runankore wird im südwestlichen Teil '''Ugandas''' gesprochen, im Ankole Distrikt, östlich vom Eduardsee. Alternative Namen sind: Nkore, Ulunyankore, Nkole und Ulunyankole.

Runyankore ist keine Amtssprache. Sie wird jedoch in Grundschulen unterrichtet und in Radioprogrammen und lokalen Zeitschriften verwendet.

===Dialekte===
Dialekte von Runyankore sind Hororo, Orutagwenda und Hima, wobei Hima oft auch als eigene Sprache bezeichnet wird.

Runyankore, Runyoro und ihre Dialekte werden oft als eine Sprache betrachtet, da sie 78%-96% lexikalisch ähnlich sind. Runyankore und Rukiga sind 84% bis 94% lexikalisch ähnlich und werden daher von einigen Linguisten als eine Sprache bezeichnet. Auch aufgrund der lexikalischen Ähnlichkeiten zu Rutooro (75%-86%), Zinza (81%), Nyambo (78%), Haya (74%) und Kerewe (68%) ist es umstritten, ob die vier in West Uganda gesprochenen Sprachen lediglich Dialekte sind.

An der Makerere Universität in Uganda wird Runyankitara als Standardisierung der vier südwestlichen Sprachen Ugandas unterrichtet.

==Phonologie==
Töne sind in der Standardorthographie nicht markiert. Töne sind nur phonetisch und spiegeln semantische Unterschiede wieder. Zum Beispiel bei der Unterscheidung zwischen omugôngo (‚back of the body‘), mit aufsteigendem und abfallendem Ton auf der dritten Silbe, und omugongo (‚village‘) mit gleichbleibender Betonung. Diese Zweideutigkeiten sind selten, daher gibt es keine Tonmarkierung.

==Morphologie und Syntax==
Runyankore ist eine SVO-Sprache und agglutierende Sprache mit Nominalklassensystem. Die Affixe der 13 Nominalklasse werden am Wortstamm der anderen Satzelemente hinzugefügt, wenn sich diese auf das Nomen beziehen.

{|
|-
|width=40px align='right'| Bsp.:|| '''''eki-'''''||''tabo''||'''''eki-'''''||''hango''||'''''eki-'''''||''mwe''
|-
| ||it-||book||it-||big||it-||one
|-
| ||colspan=4|'the one big book'
|-
|}

Unterschieden wird in den Kategorien Tempus zwei Präsensformen ‚present progressiv‘ und ‚universal present‘, die drei Präteritumsformen ‚today past‘ (TPST), ‚yesterday past‘ (YPST) und ‚remote past‘ (RPST) und zwei Futurformen ‚near future‘ und ‚remote future‘. Runyankore besitzt die Modusform Imperativ, Indikativ und Optativ.

===Nomen===
Das Nomen ist Kopf der Nominalphrase aber ist nicht Modifikator. Es kann als Subjekt vor dem Verb oder als Objekt nach dem Verb in unmarkierten Sätzen stehen. Der Numerus (Singular und Plural) wird am Nomen markiert. Als Kopf der Nominalphrase ist das Nomen durch Adjektive veränderbar. Nomen, die ihren Ursprung in der Bantusprache haben, sind an ihren Klassenpräfixen erkennbar. Nomen, die einan anderen Ursprung haben, haben keine Klassenpräfixe, werden aber den ersten beiden Klassen zugeordnet.

===Pronomen===
Das Pronomen kann Kopf der Nominalphrase sein und in der Position des Subjekts und des Objekts stehen, wenn es eine freie lexikalische Einheit ist. In vielen Fällen erscheinen Pronomen in Gestalt von Verbaffixen. Ein Personalpronomen oder ein Relativpronomen kann als Präfix oder Infix in der Position des Subjektes vor oder nach dem Zeitinfix stehen. Als Objekt steht das Relativpronomen als freie lexikalische Einheit vor dem Verb. Das Personalpronomen steht als Objekt nach dem Zeitinfix und unmittelbar vor dem Verbstamm. Wenn ein Reflexivinfix eingefügt wird, dann steht es aber zwischen Personalpronomen (in der Position des Objekts) und Verbstamm. Pronomen können in Singular und Plural vorkommen und sind den Nominalklassen zugeordnet. Nur freie Pronomen sind modifizierbar. Wenn es als Subjekt eines Satzes genutzt wird, ist es auch Subjekt des Verbs.

===Verb===
Das Verb ist Kern des Satzes. Es kann zwei Nominalphrasen verbinden. Ein ganzer Satz kann in Runyankore aber auch ein einzelnes Verb sein. Es folgt dem Subjekt und steht gegebenenfalls vor dem Objekt. Das Subjekt und Objekt eines Verbs verändern Teile seiner morphologischen Struktur, und werden als Präfix und Infix vor dem Verbstamm markiert. Das Verb enthält immer ein Subjektpräfix (selten ist es ein Infix), welches ein Relativpronomen- oder ein Personalpronomenaffix ist. Außerdem wird die Zeitform am Verb mittels Präfix oder Infix markiert. Durch Suffigierung wird der Modus am Verb gekennzeichnet. Die Negation wird allen Präfixen vorangestellt. Es ergibt sich also folgende Affix Reihenfolge für die Formation eines Verbs: '''Verneinung-Personalpronomen–Zeitform-Objekt-Verb-Modus'''.

===Adjektive===
Es gibt nur wenig Adjektive in Runyankore. Die Funktion der Adjektive wird von beschreibenden Verben oder Nomen übernommen.

{|
|-
|width=40px align='right'| Bsp.:|| ''emanzi''||''w’-''||''eki-||''tiinisa''
|-
| ||hero||of||it-||fame
|-
| ||colspan=4|'a famous hero.'
|-
|}

Das Adjektiv hat eine ähnliche Form und Funktion wie das Nomen. Semantisch repräsentiert es Eigenschaften wie lang/kurz, groß/klein und Farben. Es gibt etwa 20 solcher ‚lexikalischen‘ Adjektive in Runyankore. Aber es gibt auch ‚grammatische‘ Adjektive, wie Demonstrativum, Numerale und Possessive. Die Demonstrativ- und Possessivadjektive sind durch das Nominalklassensystem veränderbar und haben die Präfixe der Klasse, in der das Nomen zugeordnet wird, auf dem sie sich beziehen, wie die anderen obengenannten Adjektive.
Bei den '''Numeralen''' wird nur bei den Grundzahlen von ‚eins‘ bis ‚fünf‘ die Klassenpräfixe hinzugefügt, das gilt aber auch für Grundzahlen, die auf ‚eins‘ bis ‚fünf‘ enden. Das Klassenpräfix wird vor der letzten Ziffer hinzugefügt. Bei den restlichen Grundzahlen entfällt diese Regel.

===[[Passiv]]===
Das Passiv wird im Runyankore relativ häufig verwendet. Die Anordnung der Satzelemente ist: (1) Objekt Argument, (2) passives Verb, (3) Agens Argument. Der Agens folgt dem Passiv ohne Präposition.

{|
|-
|width=40px align='right'| Bsp.:|| ''omwibi''||''y-''||''aa-''||''reeb-''||'''''w-'''''||''a''||''nyineeka''
|-
| ||thief||he-||TPST-||see-||PASS-||see||owner
|-
| ||colspan=4|'The thief was noticed by the owner'.
|-
|}

Das Passiv wird wie folgt ausgedrückt:
# bei Verben, die auf ''–a'' enden, meist durch das Einfügen des Infix ''–w-'' in vor dem finalen ''–a''
# Verben die auf ''–sa'' und ''–za'' enden, ändern das finale ''–a'' in ''-ibwa''
# Kausative auf ''–ya'', ändern das –ya in ''ibwa''
# Einsilbige Verben sind irregular. Das Passiv endet immer auf –bwa, nach einem langen Vokal.
#*Einsilbige Verben, die y enthalten fügen das Infix –iibw ein
#* Verben, die w enthalten setzen –uubw ein
#* Verben die weder y noch w enthalten, fügen –eebw ein

Bsp:

{| {{prettytable}}
! Verb
!
! Passiv
!
|-
! ''-manyiisa''
| inform
| ''-manyiisib'''''w'''''a''
| be informed
|-
! ''-shemza''
| cleanse
| ''-shemez'''''ibw'''''a''
| be cleansed
|-
! ''-hamya''
| confirm
| ''-ham'''''ibw'''''a''
| be confirmed
|-
! ''-rya''
| eat
| ''-r'''''iibw'''''a''
| be eaten
|-
! ''–cwa''
| break
| ''-c'''''uubw'''''a''
| be broken
|-
! ''–ta''
| put
| ''-t'''''eebw'''''a''
| be put
|}

{|
|-
|width=40px align='right'| Bsp.:|| ''A-''||''ka-''||''it-''||'''''w-'''''||''a''
|-
| ||3SG-||RPST-||kill-||PASS-||kill
|-
| ||colspan=4|'He was killed'.
|-
|}

* Das Subjekt ist nicht immer Objekt, es kann auch indirekter Rezipient sein:

{|
|-
|width=40px align='right'| Bsp.:|| ''Mugisha''||''y-''||''aa-''||''heeb-''||'''''w-'''''||''a''||''ebitakuri''
|-
| ||Mugisha||3SG-||TPST-||give-||PASS-||give||Potatoes
|-
| ||colspan=4|'Mugisha was given potatoes'.
|-
|}

* Manche Verben die in Aktiv sind haben eine passive Bedeutung und ihre passive Form hat eine aktive Bedeutung:

{|
|-
|width=40px align='right'| Bsp.:|| ''Entaama''||''yangye''||''e-''||''buzire''
|-
| ||sheep||1SG.GEN-||it-||be lost
|-
| ||colspan=4|'My sheep is lost'.
|-
|}

{|
|-
|width=40px align='right'| Bsp.:|| ''M-''||''buzir-''||'''''w-'''''||''e''||''entaama''
|-
| ||1SG-||be lost-||PASS-||be lost||sheep
|-
| ||colspan=4|'I’ve lost a sheep'.
|-
|}

====Unpersönliches Passiv====

{|
|-
|width=40px align='right'| Bsp.:|| ''Eky-''||''eteng-''||'''''w-'''''||''a''||''aha''||''baramuzi''||''n‘okuramura''||''gye''
|-
| ||what||require-||PASS-||require||on||judges||is||judging||well
|-
| ||colspan=4|'It is demanded of judges that they judge justly'.
|-
|}

===Valenzreduktion===

====Stativ====
Das Stativ ist eine Verbalableitung, durch die im Verbalstamm ausgedrückte Handlung als erreichter oder möglicher Zustand charakterisiert wird. Ein spezifischer Agens ist dabei nicht impliziert. Das finalen ''–a'' wird zur Endung ''–ika'', ''-eka'', ''-ara'' oder ''–ikara'' eingefügt.

{| {{prettytable}}
! Verb
!
! Stativ
!
|-
! ''-yata''
| spill
| ''-yat'''''ika'''''
| be spilt
|-
! ''–cwa''
| break
| ''-cw'''''eka'''''
| be broken
|-
! ''-shara''
| cut
| ''-shar'''''uka'''''
| be cut
|-
! ''-tsiga''
| leave
| ''-tsig'''''ara'''''
| be left
|-
! ''-shiisha''
| spoil
| ''-rhiish'''''ara'''''
| be spoilt
|-
|}

====[[Reziprok]]====
Verben werden durch die Suffigierung mit ''-na'' reziprok. ''-na'' kann dabei auch signalisieren, dass mehr als ein Lebewesen oder Gegenstand an einer Handlung teilnimmt.

{|
|-
|width=40px align='right'| Bsp.:||''Oko-''||''teera-''||'''''na'''''||''kwambo''
|-
| ||3PL||hit||RECP||their||
|-
| ||colspan=4|'They hit each other'.
|-
|}

*''-na'' kann die Bedeutung von ‚mit’haben

{|
|-
|width=40px align='right'| Bsp.:|| ''Y-''||''aa-''||''ija-''||'''''na'''''||''embwa''
|-
| ||TPST||3SG||come||RECP||dog||
|-
| ||colspan=4|'He came with the dog'.
|-
|}

===Valenzerweiterung===

====[[Kausativ]]====
Der Kausativ kann wie folgt gebildet werden:

1. Die Endung ''–a'' wird in ''–ya'' umgewandelt.
*Verben, die auf ''–ha'', ''-ka'' und ''–ga'' enden und ihren Kausativ auf diese Weise bilden, enthärten im Runyankore ''–hya'', ''-kya'' und ''–gya'' zu ''–sya'', ''-tsya'' und ''–zya''.

{|
|-
| ''-taaha'' ||→|| ''-taahya'' ||→|| ''-taasya''
|-
| enter || || || || bring in
|-
|}

{|
|-
| ''-hika'' || → || ''-hikya'' || → || ''-hitsya''
|-
| reach || || || || cause to reach
|-
|}

{|
|-
| ''-oga'' || → || ''-ogya'' || → || ''-ozya''
|-
| bath || || || || cleanse ''(cause to bath)''
|-
|}

2. Die Endung ''–a'' wird in ''–isa'' oder wenn der Vokal der vorletzten Silbe ein ''e'' oder ''o'' ist, wird sie in ''–esa'' umgewandelt.

{|
|-
| ''-gamba'' || → || ''-gambisa''
|-
| speak || || speak through ''(cause to speak)''
|-
|}

{|
|-
| ''-shoma'' || → || ''-shomesa''
|-
| read || || teach ''(cause to read)''
|-
|}

* Verben, die auf auf ''–ja'' und ''–sha'' enden, ändern das ''j'' in ''z'' und ''sh'' in ''s''

{|
|-
| ''-tagaija'' || → || ''-tagaizisa''
|-
| walk painfully || || cause to walk painfully
|-
|}

{|
|-
| ''-rasha'' || → || ''-rasisa''
|-
| shoot || || cause to shoot
|-
|}

{|
|-
| ''-gyesha'' || → || ''-gyesesa''
|-
| harvest || || cause to harvest
|-
|}

3. Ausnahmen:
* Viele Verben die auf ''–ra'' und ''-nda'' enden, ändern das ''–ra'' und ''–da'' in ''–za''

{|
|-
| ''-kora'' || → || ''-koza''
|-
| work || || cause to work
|-
|}

{|
|-
| ''-funda'' || → || ''-funza''
|-
| be narrow || || make narrow
|-
|}

* Einige intransitive Verben auf ''–ka'' haben eine kausative und transitive Form in ''–ra''

{|
|-
| ''-hinduka'' || → || ''-hindura''
|-
| turn || || turn something
|-
|}

=====Gebrauch von Kausativ=====
* jemanden veranlassen etwas zu tun

{|
|-
|width=40px align='right'| Bsp.:|| ''A-''||''ka-''||''b-''||''ombek-''||'''''yesa'''''||''enju''
|-
| ||3SG||RPST-||them-||build-||CAUS||house
|-
| ||colspan=4|'He got them to build a house.'
|-
|}

* um ein intransitives Verb transitiv zu machen

{|
|-
|width=40px align='right'| Bsp.:|| ''A-''||''ka-''||''ki-''||'''''za'''''||''omurwaire''
|-
| ||3SG||RPST-||cure-||CAUS||patient
|-
| ||colspan=4|'He cured the patient'. (von ''–kira'', get well)
|-
|}

* um das Instrument zu nennen

{|
|-
|width=40px align='right'| Bsp.:|| ''A-''||''ka-''||''n-''||''tee-''||'''''za'''''||''enkoni''
|-
| ||3SG||RPST-||1SG.DAT-||hit-||CAUS||stick
|-
| ||colspan=4|'He hit me with a stick.' ''(lit. He caused the stick to hit me.)''
|-
|}

* um nach dem Grund zu fragen

{|
|-
|width=40px align='right'| Bsp.:|| ''Eki-''||''rikukugamb-''||'''''isa'''''||''kityo''||''n’enki?''
|-
| ||it-||say-||CAUS||like that||why
|-
| ||colspan=4|'Why do you say this?'. ''(lit. What is it that causes you to say this?.)''
|-
|}

====Doppel-Kausativ====
Beim doppelten Kausativ enden die Verben auf ''–za''. Ausnahmen bilden die Verben auf ''–ya'', deren Endung zu ''–ize'' wird.

{|
|-
|width=40px align='right'| Bsp.:|| ''A-''||''ka-''||''ki-''||''hindu-''||'''''za'''''||''enkoni''
|-
| ||3SG-||RPST-||3SG.DAT-||turn-||CAUS||stick
|-
| ||colspan=4|'He turned it with a stick'. ''(lit. He caused the stick to cause it to turn.)''
|-
|}

===[[Reflexiv]]===
Reflexiv kann durch ein verbales Präfix ausgedrückt werden, indem ''e-'' an den Verbstamm zugefügt wird. Wenn das Verb mit ''a'', ''e'', oder ''o'' beginnt, werden die Vokale durch das Infix ''–y-'' getrennt.

{|
|-
|width=40px align='right'| Bsp.:|| ''Nganga''||''n-''||''aa-''||'''''ye-'''''||''shereka''
|-
| ||Nganga||TPST-||3SG-||self-||hide
|-
| ||colspan=4|'Nganga was hiding (himself)'.
|-
|}

* Um die Reflexivität zu betonen kann ''–onka''/ ''-enka'' als freies Attribut hinzugefügt werden.

{|
|-
|width=40px align='right'| Bsp.:|| ''N-''||''aa-''||'''''ye-'''''||''shereka''||''w-''||''enka''
|-
| ||TPST-||3SG-||self-||cover||3SG-||only
|-
| ||colspan=4|'He was covering ''himself''.
|-
|}

===[[Applikativ]]===
Die Endung ''–a'' vom Wortstamm wird zu ''–ira'' oder ''–era'', wenn die vorletzte Silbe ''e'' oder ''o'' ist.
Verben auf ''–ja'' und ''–sha'', die die Endung ''–ira'' nehmen, ändern das ''j'' in ''z'' und ''sha'' in ''s''.

{|
|-
| ''-kora'' || → || ''-korera''
|-
| work || || work for
|-
|}

{|
|-
| ''-ija'' || → || ''-izira''
|-
| come || || come for
|-
|}

{|
|-
|width=40px align='right'| Bsp.:|| ''N-''||''deet-''||'''''era'''''||''eki-''||''tabo''
|-
| ||1SG.ACC-||bring-||APPL||it-||book
|-
| ||colspan=4|'Bring for me a book'.
|-
|}

{|
|-
|width=40px align='right'| Bsp.:|| ''A-''||''ka-''||''reet-''||'''''era'''''||''omwana''||''eki-''||''conco''
|-
| ||3SG-||RPST-||bring-||APPL-||child||it-||present
|-
| ||colspan=4|'He brought a prensent for the child'.
|-
|}

* Ausnahmen:
1. Verben auf ''–za'' werden zu ''–riza'' oder ''–reza''

{|
|-
| ''-heza'' || → || ''-hereza''
|-
| finish || || finish for
|-
|}

2. Kausative Verben auf ''–ya'' werden zu ''–iza'' oder ''–eza''

{|
|-
| ''-hamya'' || → || ''-hamiza''
|-
| confirm || || confirm for
|-
|}

3. Kausative Verben auf ''–sa'' werden zu ''–siza'' oder ''–seza''

{|
|-
| ''-gyendesa'' || → || ''-gyendeseza''
|-
| cause to go || || cause to go for
|-
|}

4. Kausative Verben auf ''–sya'', ''-tsya'' und ''–zya'', die aus Verben mit der Endung auf ''–ha'', ''-ka'', ''-ga'' geformt wurden, bilden ihren Applikativ, aus dem ursprünglichen Verb, wie der Kausativ regulär gebildet worden wäre (ohne ''Enthärtung'').

{|
|-
| ''-taasya'' || → || ''-taahiza''
|-
| bring in || || bring in for
|-
|}

{|
|-
| ''-imutsya'' || → || ''-imukiza''
|-
| raise up || || raise up for
|-
|}

{|
|-
| ''-ozya'' || → || ''-ogyeza''
|-
| cleanse || || wash in
|-
|}

===Doppel-Applikativ===

{|
|-
|width=40px align='right'| Bsp.:|| ''O-''||''mu-''||''ngambir-''||'''''ire'''''
|-
| ||2SG-||3SG.DAT-||tell||APPL
|-
| ||colspan=4|'Tell him for me'.
|-
|}

==Literatur==
* Taylor, Charles V.: Nkore-Kiga, Croom Helm. London 1984

* Morris, H and Kirwan, B: A Runyankore Grammar. Nairobi 1966

* Taylor, Charles V.: A Simplified Runyankore-Rugika-English and English Runyankore-Rugika Dictionary. Kampala 1959

==Weblinks==

http://www.panafril10n.org/wikidoc/pmwiki.php/PanAfrLoc/Runyakitara

http://www.ethnologue.com/show_language.asp?code=nyn

[[Category:De]]
[[Category:Single language]]

Maori

2021-01-04T08:27:19Z

Kirk Miller:

== Verbreitungsgebiet und Geschichte ==

*Maori ist die wichtigste indigene Sprache Neuseelands (zusammen mit dem bereits ausgestorbenen Mōriori der Chatham Inseln)
*Es gibt noch etwa 50.000 bis 70.000 Sprecher und 100.000 Menschen, die Maori verstehen, aber nicht regelmäßig sprechen (die Maori-Bevölkerung entspricht etwa 530.000 Menschen) [[http://www.tetaurawhiri.govt.nz/english/services_e/intro_statistics.shtml Daten]]
*Nächste Verwandschaft: zu Cook Island Maori (auch: Rarotonganisch)
*Jeder Stamm sprach seinen eigenen Dialekt (hauptsächlich Unterschiede auf lexikalischer und phonetischer Ebene)
*Der erste Kontakt zu Europäern fand zwischen Fischern und Walfängern statt (durch eine Art Pidgin, ohne großen Einfluss auf das Maori)
*Mit der Ankunft der Missionare Anfang 1800, wurde Maori zum ersten Mal niedergeschrieben (die Orthographie von Prof. Lee/Cambridge, zwei Maori Häuptlingen und dem Missionar Kendall wird z.T. noch heute verwendet, teilweise Probleme mit der Darstellung der Vokallängung)
*Durch die Missionare entstand auch eine Bibelübersetzung und Schulen für „Einheimische (natives)“
*1867 wurde von Regierungsseite beschlossen, dass in den Schulen Englisch unterrichtet und gesprochen wird (Kinder wurden für das Sprechen von Maori bestraft)
*Es gab Mitte des 20.Jahrhunderts in der jüngeren Generation der Maori keine Maori-Sprecher mehr (1978 stellte das NZCER (Council for Educational Research) etwa 70.000 Sprecher fest, wobei die meisten über 45 Jahre alt waren, einige Forscher glaubten, dass Maori aussterben würde)
*In den 70er und 80er Jahren (des 20.Jh.) entstand eine Renaissance der Kultur und Sprache der Maori (angetrieben durch eine Bewegung junger Intellektueller)
*Den größten Fortschrit brachte (bezogen auf die Sprache) die Gründung von "Kohanga Reo" (oder „Sprach-Nest“), einer Vorschulinitiative zum Gebrauch von Maori als Medium, hauptsächlich durch Frauen geführt, die eine Verbesserung der Sprachkenntnisse ihrer Kinder erreichen wollten
*Dies entwickelte sich zu weiteren Bildungsprogrammen, die sich auf die primary und secondary school ausbreiteten, vor allem bilinguale Spezialangebote wurden gefördert
*Zusätzlich wurden mehrere Maori-Radiostationen und Maori-Programme im öffentlich-rechtlichen Fernsehen eingerichtet
*Eine Sprachkommision wurde zur Representation und Unterstützung des Maori gegründet
*Allerdings ist die derzeitige Sprachsitution immer noch recht schlecht und nur ein Teil der Maori-Bevölkerung spricht die Sprache seiner Ahnen fließend, meist wird sie eher wie eine Fremdsprache erlernt und benutzt (vorallem in der „mittleren“ Generation)
*Erklärung für den „Vorteil“ von Englisch gegenüber Maori ist z.B. das fehlende Vokabular für die heutige Zeit (und der Zwang englische Wörter zu verwenden führt schnell zu Code-switching), die Sprachkomminsion versucht dem mit Programme zur „Wortbildung“ entgegenzutreten (aber: die neuen Wörter werden selten anerkannt)gerade die jüngere Generation spricht eher eine Art Pidgin oder Kreol, bei der ein großer Teil des Vokabulars aus dem Englischen stammt (z.T. phonologisch adaptiert),die verwendete Bandbreite grammatischer Strukturen aus dem Maori ist sehr gering, englische Inhaltswörter werden mit Partikeln aus dem Maori kombiniert etc.

== Sprachverwandtschaft ==

Ost-Polynesisch Untergruppe der Austronesischen Sprachfamilie.

''Polynesian Languages and their subgrouping nach Chung 1978:''

Leider kann ich die gewünschte Graphik im Rahmen der Linguipedia nicht hochladen, sie wird dann im Wikipedia-Artikel erscheinen.

== Phonologie ==

[http://www.maorilanguage.net/pronounce/index.cfm Hinweise zur Aussprache]
=== Konsonanten ===
{| {{Prettytable}}
|  
! colspan="1" style="background-color:#CAFF70" | [[bilabial]]
! colspan="1" style="background-color:#CAFF70" | [[labiodental|labio- dental]]
! colspan="1" style="background-color:#CAFF70" | [[dental]]
! colspan="1" style="background-color:#CAFF70" | [[velar]]
! colspan="1" style="background-color:#CAFF70" | [[glottal]]
|-
! style="background-color:#CAFF70; text-align:left" | [[Frikativ]]e
|  
| style="text-align:center" | [[Stimmloser labiodentaler Frikativ|{{IPA-Text|f}}]]
|  
|  
| style="text-align:center" | [[Stimmloser glottaler Frikativ|{{IPA-Text|h}}]]
|-
! style="background-color:#CAFF70; text-align:left" | [[Plosiv]]e
| style="text-align:center" | [[Stimmloser bilabialer Plosiv|{{IPA-Text|p}}]]
|  
| style="text-align:center" | [[Stimmloser bilabialer Plosiv|{{IPA-Text|t}}]]
| style="text-align:center" | [[Stimmloser velarer Plosiv|{{IPA-Text|k}}]]
|  
|-
! style="background-color:#CAFF70; text-align:left" | [[Nasal (Phonetik)|Nasal]]e
| style="text-align:center" | [[Stimmhafter bilabialer Nasal|{{IPA-Text|m}}]]
|  
| style="text-align:center" | [[Stimmhafter alveolarer Nasal|{{IPA-Text|n}}]]
| style="text-align:center" | [[Stimmhafter velarer Nasal|{{IPA-Text|ŋ}}]]
|  
|-
! style="background-color:#CAFF70; text-align:left" | [[Approximant]]
| style="text-align:center" | [[Stimmhafter labiovelarer Approximant|{{IPA-Text|w}}]]
|  
|  
|  
|  
|-
! style="background-color:#CAFF70; text-align:left" | [[Flap (alveolar)]]
|  
|  
| style="text-align:center" | [[alveolarer Flap|{{IPA-Text|ɾ}}]]
|  
|  
|-
|}

Die Plosive sind immer unaspiriert. Das Phonem /t/ wird vor hohen Vokalen palatalisiert Zwischen den einzelnen Dialekten gibt es geringe Unterschiede der Phonologie die vorallem /f / betreffen.

=== Vokale ===
{| {{Prettytable}}
| rowspan="1" |  
! colspan="1" style="background-color:#CAFF70" | vorne
! colspan="1" style="background-color:#CAFF70" | zentral
! colspan="1" style="background-color:#CAFF70" | hinten
|- style="text-align:center"
|-
! style="background-color:#CAFF70; text-align:left" | geschlossen
| style="text-align:center" | [[Ungerundeter geschlossener Vorderzungenvokal|{{IPA-Text|i}}]]
|  
| style="text-align:center" | [[Gerundeter geschlossener Hinterzungenvokal|{{IPA-Text|u}}]]
|-
! style="background-color:#CAFF70; text-align:left" | halbgeschlossen
| style="text-align:center" | [[Ungerundeter halbgeschlossener Vorderzungenvokal|{{IPA-Text|e}}]]
|  
| style="text-align:center" | [[Gerundeter halbgeschlossener Hinterzungenvokal|{{IPA-Text|o}}]]
|-
! style="background-color:#CAFF70; text-align:left" | offen
|  
| style="text-align:center" | [[Ungerundeter offener Vorderzungenvokal|{{IPA-Text|a}}]]
|  
|}
Das Phonemsystem ist ähnlich dem anderer polynesischer Sprachen. Eine Kombination von zwei gleichen Vokalen verursacht einen langen Vokal, die Kombination zwei verschiedener Vokale meist einen Diphthong oder aber der zweite Vokal wird voll ausgesprochen (von Sprecher zu Sprecher unterschiedlich).

=== Betonung/ Silbenstruktur ===

*Silbenstruktur: (C)V(V(V))
*Grundlegende Einheit: More (die meisten lexikalischen Stämme und Wörter bestehen aus mindestens zwei Moren)
*Wortakzent: betont werden...
#lange Vokale
#nicht-finale Diphthonge
#sonst: die erste More
:ansonsten:
#das Präfix whaka- wird nie auf der ersten Silbe betont
#teilweise reduplizierte Stämme sind nie auf ihrer Wurzel betont
#:etc.

== Grammatik und Morphologie ==

=== Phrasenstruktur ===
*Wortstellung: VSO
*Die Phrase (und nicht das Wort) ist grundlegende Einheit zur Beschreibung der Syntax.
*Änderung der Wortstellung kann sowohl Bedeutungsänderung (vor allem bei Korpulakonstruktionen) als auch Fokusierung (bei anderen Konstuktionen) zur Folge haben.
*Defaultform der Phrasenstruktur: zuerst der Kopf der Phrase, nachfolgende Elemente fungieren immer als Modifizierer des direkt vorangegangenen Wortes

{|
|-
|width=40px align='right'| Bsp.:|| ''(he)''||''pukapuka''||''reo''||''Maːori''
|-
| ||DET||book ||language||Maori
|-
| ||colspan=4|[ [ [ (he) pukapuka ] reo ] Maːori ]
|-
| ||colspan=4|'A Maori language book'
|-
|}

*die Funktion von Modifizierern wird sowohl durch Wortstellung als auch durch das Fehlen von Determinierern ausgelöst.

: Bsp.:
{|
|-
|width=40px align='right'|1.)|| ''kua''|| ''pau''|| ''te'' || ''wai'' ||style="background:#CAFF70"| ''te'' || ''inu''|| ''e'' || ''te'' || ''kuriː''
|-
| ||PRF ||exhaust||the|| water||style="background:#CAFF70"| the|| drink|| by|| the|| dog
|-
| ||colspan=9|'The dog finished drinking the water'
|-
|}

{|
|-
|width=40px align='right'|2.)|| ''kua''|| ''pau'' || ''te'' || ''wai'' || '' inu'' || ''i'' || ''te''|| '' kuriː''
|-
| ||PRF ||exhaust || the|| water|| drink || cause ||the ||dog
|-
| ||colspan=9|'The dog finished the drinking water'
|-
|}
: (Das Fehlen von te bei 2.) makiert inu als Modifizierer und nicht wie in 1.) als Anfang einer neuen Phrase)

'''Die Verbalphrase:'''

Maori hat eine Vielzahl von verbalen Partikeln, die meist dem Nukleus ihrer Phrase vorangestellt sind. Sie drücken verschiedenste temporale, aspektuale oder modale Bedeutungen aus.

# ''ka'' : Markierung der Phrase als verbal und Hinweis das keine inherenten Werte von Tempus, Aspekt oder Modus vorhanden sind. Die Default-Lesart von ''ka'' ist temporal Präsens und aspektuell Perfekt.
# ''i'' ≈ Past (aspektuell Perfekt)
# ''kua'' ≈ Perfekt
# ''kia'' : tritt in 4 verschienden Kontruktionen auf:
#* Imperativ von Adjektiven, neutralen Verben und Experience-Verben
#* Temporal-Sätzen für Futur
#* Mit den postpositionierten ai in finalen Sätzen
#* Komplement von Verben des Wünschens, Bestellens, Nachfragens, Gut oder Schlecht-Seins
# ''me'' ≈ „schwacher“ Imperativ, wird meist mit sollte/müßte/könnte übersetzt
# ''e...ana'' ≈ progressiver Aspekt, in jedem Tempus möglich
# ''kei te ~ i te'' ≈ Progressiv
# ''e/ Ø'' ≈ Imperativ bei transitiven und intransitiven Sätzen, die Allomorphie ist phonologisch bedingt
# ''ai'' : tritt in 2 berschiedenen Konstruktionen auf
#* Habitual
#* „Trace-Element“ zur Markierung von Bewegungen im Satz

=== Flexion ===

==== Syntaktische Funktionen/Argumentsruktur ====
Die semantische und syntaktische Struktur von NPs wird im Maori hauptsächlich durch die Beifügung von Partikeln markiert, wobei allerdings beachtet werden sollte, dass das Fehlen eines solchen Markierungspartikels auch Indikator einer Funktion darstellt. Präpositionen markieren meist alle Nicht-Subjekt Funktionen, sind aber multifunktional (kein eins-zu-eins Zuordnung von Präposition und Funktion)
*'''Das Subjekt des intransitiven Verbs'''
*:Das Subjekt von allen Typen von intransitiven Verben ist eine nicht-präpositionalen NP d.h. es ist Ø-markiert. Das gilt sowohl für Verben, bei denen das Subjekt die Kontrolle über eine Situation hat als auch für solche, bei denen das nicht der Fall ist.

{|
|width=40px align='right'| Bsp:||''ka''||''oma''||''ngaː''||''koːtiro''||''ki''||''waho''
|-
| ||PRF||run||the.PL||girl||to||outside
|-
| || ||colspan=7|'The girls run outside'
|-
|}

*'''Das Subjekt des transitiven Verbs'''
*:Auch Subjekte von transitiven Verben sind Ø-markiert.
{|
|width=40px align='right'|Bsp:||a.)||''kaho''||''ko''||''te''||''matua''||''i''||''ngaː''||''tiːkiti''
|-
| || ||PRF||buy||the||parent||OBJ/ACC||the.PL||ticket
|-
| || ||colspan=8|'The parent buys the ticket'
|-
|}

{|
|width=40px align='right'| ||b.)||''kei te''||''patu''||''ia''|| ''i'' ||''t-aː-na''||''kuriː''
|-
| || ||PROG||beat||3SG|| OBJ/ACC ||SG-of-3SG||dog
|-
| || ||colspan=8|'He is beating his dog'
|}

*'''Das Direkte Objekt''': Problemfall: Partikel i /ki:
**Bauer/ Harlow: „Objektmarker“
**Chung: „Kasusmarker- Akkusativ“
**Sinclair: keine Glossierung bzw. keine Angabe
**Foster: „transitive preposition“
{|
|width=40px align='right'|Bsp:||a.)||''kaho''||''ko''||''te''||''matua''||style="background:#CAFF70" |''i''||''ngaː''||''tiːkiti''
|-
| || ||PRF||buy||the||parent||style="background:#CAFF70" |OBJ/ACC||the.PL||ticket
|-
| || ||colspan=8|'The parent buys the ticket'
|-
|}

{|
|width=40px align='right'| ||b.)||''kei te''||''patu''||''ia''|| style="background:#CAFF70" |''i'' ||''t-aː-na''||''kuriː''
|-
| || ||PROG||beat||3SG|| style="background:#CAFF70" |OBJ/ACC ||SG-of-3SG||dog
|-
| || ||colspan=8|'He is beating his dog'
|}

: ''Die semantische Funktion von 'i' und 'ki' hat eher pragmatische Bedeutung und läßt sich z.B.auf die Kenntnis der möglichen Argumente eines Verbs zusammenfassen.(Bauer)''
: ''Für einige Verben ist es 'ki', aber nicht phonologisch bedingt, sondern eher semantisch (Unterscheidung zwischen Patiens und Ziel einer Handlung). Meist sind es daher „Erfahrungsverben“ piːrangi 'want', moːhio 'know', maumahara 'remember' oder ahora 'love' die ki als Objektmarker verlangen. Allerdings gibt es auch hier viele (semantische) Ausnahmen.''
''
*'''Das Indirekte Objekt'''
*:Kann entweder mit ki oder moː/maː ausgedrückt werden (Unterscheidung zwischen Ziel und Benefaktiv bzw. Possession und Lokation) Allerdings: „(Thus) indirect objects are not a category useful for the description of Maori.“ (Bauer)

==== Verbmorphologie/ Valenzveränderung ====

===== Valenzreduktion =====
*[[Passiv]]

:Subjekt = markiert mit e
:Objekt = unmarkiert + Passiv-Suffix am Verbstamm

{|
|-
|width=40px align='right'|Bsp.:||''E''||''ko:hete''||''ana''||''a''||''Huia''||''i''||''a''||''Pani''
|-
| ||PROG||scold||PROG||PERS||Huia||DO||PERS||Pani
|-
| ||colspan=3|'Huia is scolding Pani'
|-
|}

::(PERS= personal article)

{|
|-
|-
|width=40px align='right'| ||''I''||''koːhetete'' ''-tia'' ||''a''||''Pani''||style="background:#B3EE3A" |''e''||''Huia''
|-
| ||PST||scold ''-PASS'' ||PERS||style="background:#B3EE3A" |Pani||by ||Huia
|-
| ||colspan=3|'Pani was scolded by Huia'
|-
|}

:Das Passivsuffix –Cia (Konsonant + ia) hat 17 Allomorphe (z.T. phonologisch, z.T lexikalisch bedingt), teilweise erfolgt eine Veränderung im Stamm.

::{| {{Prettytable}}
|-
|
|style="background:#8EE5EE;" | ||style="background:#8EE5EE;" |'''Aktiv'''||style="background:#8EE5EE;" |'''Passiv'''
|-
|style="background:#8EE5EE;" |Bsp:||''inu''||''inu-mia''||'drink'
|-
|style="background:#8EE5EE;" | ||''patu''||''patu-a''||'strike'
|-
|style="background:#8EE5EE;" | ||''hopu''||''hopu-kina''||'grab'
|-
|style="background:#8EE5EE;" | ||''mea''||''me-inga''||'say, do'
|-
|}

:Sprecher weisen oft Sätze wie diesen ab:
{|
|-
|width=40px align='right'|*||''I''||''patu''||''a''||''Rewi''||''i''||''te''||''kuriː''
|-
| ||PST||beat||PERS||Rewi||DO||the||dog
|-
| ||colspan=5|'Rewi beat the dog'
|-
|}

:aber:
{|
|-
|width=40px align='right'| ||''I''||''patu-a''||''te''||'' kuriː''||'' e''||'' Rewi''
|-
| || PST||beat-PASS|| the|| dog || by|| Rewi
|-
| ||colspan=3|'The dog was beaten by Rewi'
|-
| 
| 
| 
| 
| 
| 
| 
|-
|width=40px align='right'| ||''E''|||''patu''||''ana''||''a''||''Rewi''||''i''||''te''||''kuriː''
|-
| ||PROG || beat||PROG|| PERS|| Rewi|| DO|| the|| dog
|-
| ||colspan=3|'Rewi is beating the dog'
|-
|}

:Außerdem ungewöhnlich:
:*Passiv als Form von transitiven Imperativen (Aktiv ist nicht möglich bzw. ungrammatisch)

{|
|-
|width=40px align='right'| ||''Ø''||'' huri-hia''||''too''||''ika!''||
|-
| ||IMP ||turn-PASS || SG.GEN.2SG || fish
|-
| ||colspan=3|'Turn your fish over!'
|-
|}

:*Aber: Passiv + „schwacher“ Imperativ: ungrammatisch

{|
|-
|width=40px align='right'|*||'' Me''||''aːwhina-tia''||'' a''|| ''Pani''||'' e ''||'' Tuː''
|-
| ||WIMP|| help-PASS || PERS|| Pani|| by || Tu|| || || || || || ||(WIMP = weak imperative) 
|-
| ||colspan=3|'Pani should be helped by Tu'
|-
|}

:*Lokative als „Subjekte“ in Passivsätzen

{|
|-
|width=40px align='right'| ||''He''||''maha''||''ngaː''||''waːhi''||''o''||''Niu Tiːreni''||''i''||''haere-a''||''e''||''teːnei ''||''roːpuː''
|-
| ||CLF || many || the(PL)|| place || GEN|| New Zealand||PST || move-PASS || by || this||group
|-
| ||colspan=13|'This group went to many places in NZ (more lit.: Many are the places in NZ which were gone to by this group)'
|-
|}

{| border="2" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="4" rules="all" class="hintergrundfarbe3 rahmenfarbe2" style="margin:1em 1em 1em 0; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-collapse:collapse; empty-cells:show"
|- bgcolor="#C1FFC1"
|<big>'''''Exkurs: Maori als akkusativische oder ergativische Sprache'''''</big> siehe auch [[Ergativität]]

:{|
|-bgcolor="#C1FFC1"
|Bsp:||a.)|| intransitiver Satz ||I || ''ka''||''oma''||''ngaː''||''koːtiro''||''ki''||''waho''||
|-bgcolor="#C1FFC1"
| || || || ||PRF||run||the.PL||girl||to||outside||
|-bgcolor="#C1FFC1"
| || || || ||colspan=7|'The girls will run outside'
|-bgcolor="#C1FFC1"
| colspan=11|  
|-bgcolor="#C1FFC1"
| ||b.)|| transitiver Satz ||II ||''ka''||''hoko''||''te''||'' matua''||'' i ''||''ngaː''||'' tiːkiti''
|-bgcolor="#C1FFC1"
| || || || ||PRF || buy || the|| parent|| OBJ/ACC|| the.PL|| ticket
|-bgcolor="#C1FFC1"
| || || || ||colspan=7|'The parent buys the ticket'
|-bgcolor="#C1FFC1"
| colspan=11|  
|-bgcolor="#C1FFC1"
| || ||Passiv|| III || ''ka ''||'' hoko-na''||'' ngaː ''||'' tiːkiti''||'' e ''||'' te''||'' matua''
|-bgcolor="#C1FFC1"
| || || || ||PRF|| buy-PASS || the.PL || ticket || by|| the|| parent
|-bgcolor="#C1FFC1"
| || || || ||colspan=7|'The tickets were bought by the parent'
|}

Chung / „traditionelle“ Betrachtungsweise:

----
*Aktiv (II) als Basis der Transitivkonstruktion
*Passivierungsregel: Umwandlung des Objekt in ein Subjekt, Einbettung des Subjekt in eine oblique Präpositionalphrase (markiert durch e ) und Affigierung des Passivsuffix
*:'''Transitive Sätze die nicht passiviert werden, durchlaufen eine Akkusativ-Kaususregel (Markierung durch i) weil die Subjekte intransitiver Sätze genauso nicht markiert werden wie der grundlegenden transitiven Sätze (II) kann man Maori als akkusativische Sprache bezeichnen'''

Sinclair:

----
*Passiv (II) als Basis der Transitivkonstruktion
*Antipassivregel: Umwandlung des Subjekt der obliquen PP in ein vollwertiges Subjekt, Einbettung des Objekt in eine oblique Präpositionalphrase (markiert durch i ) und Entfernen des Passivsuffix
*:'''Transitive Sätze die nicht antipassiviert werden, durchlaufen eine Ergativ-Kaususregel (Markierung durch e) weil die Subjekte intransitiver Sätze genauso nicht markiert werden wie die Objekte der grundlegenden passiven Sätze (III) kann man Maori als ergativische Sprache bezeichnen
:::'''''Hauptargument: „Passiv“ ist häufiger als Aktiv (vor allem im PAST)'''''

:Chung : ''„ Frequency is a question of usage; as such, it is independent of the identity of the basic transitive construction and ::its relationship to derived constructions, which are questions of structure”''
|}

*'''Transitiv → Intrasitiv (ohne Spezifizierung des Subjekts) = '''[[Antikausativ]] (?)
:Bsp.
{|
|-
|width=40px align='right'| a.)||''E''||'' whaka-maoa''||'' ana''||'' a''||'' Hone''||'' i''||'' ngaː''||'' kai''
|-
| || PROG || cause-cook ||PROG|| PERS|| John || DO|| the(PL)|| food
|-
| ||colspan=8|'John is cooking the dinner'
|-
|}

{|
|-
|width=40px align='right'|b.)||'' E''||'' whaka-maoa''||'' ana''||''ngaː''||''kai''
|-
| || PROG ||cause-cook || PROG ||the(PL) || food
|-
| ||colspan=6|'The dinner is cooking'
|-
|}

*'''Transitiv → Intrasitiv (ohne Spezifizierung des Objekts) = '''[[Antipassiv]] (?)

:Bsp:
{|
|-
|width=40px align='right'| ||''E'' ||'' kai''|| ''ana''||'' a''||''Hone''||''i''||''ngaa''||''kooura''
|-
| ||PROG || eat || PROG ||PERS || John||DO||the(PL)||crayfish
|-
| ||colspan=5|'John is eating the crayfish'
|-
|}

{|
|-
|width=40px align='right'| ||''E'' ||'' kai''|| ''ana''||'' a''||''Hone''
|-
| ||PROG || eat || PROG ||PERS || John
|-
| ||colspan=5|'John is eating'
|-
|}

*'''[[Reziprok]]'''
:Bsp:
{|
|-
|width=40px align='right'| 1.)||''E'' ||'' kihi''|| ''ana''||'' a''||''Hone''|| ''i''||''a''||''Mere''
|-
| ||PROG || kiss || PROG ||PERS || John ||DO||PERS||Mary
|-
| ||colspan=6|'John is kissing Mary'
|-
|}

{|
|-
|width=40px align='right'| 2.)||''E'' ||'' kihi''|| ''ana''||'' a''||''Hone''|| ''raaua''||''ko''||''Mere''
|-
| ||PROG || kiss || PROG ||PERS || John ||2DU||SPEC||Mary|| || || ||(2DU= 2.Pers.Dual; SPEC= Spezifizierer) 
|-
| ||colspan=6|'John and Mary are kissing'
|-
|}

*'''Objektinkorporation'''

:Dieser Prozess läßt (laut Bauer) durch die Inkorporation eines indefiniten Direkten Objekts ein zusammengesetztes Verb entstehen. Dabei wird nur der Stamm des Objekts eingebunden d.h. es gibt keine Kasusmarker oder Determinierer wie Numerus-Markierung. Man beachte die Position des post-verbale Partikels '' ana''.

{|
|-
|width=40px align='right'| 1.)||''E'' ||'' tuhi-tuhi''|| ''reta''||'' ana''||''ia''||
|-
| ||PROG || write-write || letter ||PROG ||3SG||
|-
| ||colspan=6|'She is letter-writing'
|-
|}
{|
|-
|width=40px align='right'| 2.)||''E'' ||'' kohi''|| ''hua''||'' raakau''||''ana''|| ''ia''
|-
| ||PROG || gather || fruit ||tree ||PROG||3SG
|-
| ||colspan=6|'She is berry-picking'
|-
|}

:Zum Vergleich:
{|
|-
|width=40px align='right'| ||''E''|||''patu''||''ana''||''a''||''Rewi''||''i''||''te''||''kuriː''
|-
| ||PROG || beat||PROG|| PERS|| Rewi|| DO|| the|| dog
|-
| ||colspan=3|'Rewi is beating the dog'
|-
|}

===== Valenzerweiterung =====
*'''[[Kausativ]]'''
:Hauptsächlich wird das Präfix ''whaka-''für die Bildung des Kausativs verwendet. Dabei sind einige Formen bereits lexikalisiert und unterscheiden sich in ihrer Bedeutung vom üblichen Kausativ.

:''Whaka-'' kann an neutrale Verben, Adjektive und kanonische intransitive Verben präfigiert werden.

::'''Beispiele für Beziehungen zwischen Stämmen und ''whaka-''Derivativen:'''
::{| {{Prettytable}}
|-
|
| style="background:#8EE5EE;" |'''Stamm'''||style="background:#8EE5EE;" | ||style="background:#8EE5EE;" |'''whaka-'''||style="background:#8EE5EE;" |
|-
|style="background:#8EE5EE;" |Bsp:||''hoki''||'return'||''whakahoki''||'reply, take back'
|-
|style="background:#8EE5EE;" | ||''maarama''||'clear, bright, lucid'||''whakamaarama''||'explain'
|-
|style="background:#8EE5EE;" | ||''oho''||'wake up, be awake'||''whakaoho''||'waken, rouse'
|-
|style="background:#8EE5EE;" | ||''pono''||'be true'||''whakapono''||'believe, admit as true'
|-
|}

:*Intransitive Verben
::Bsp:
::{|
|-
|width=40px align='right'| 1.)||''Kua'' ||'' mutu''|| ''te''||'' hui''||
|-
| ||PRF || finished || the ||meeting
|-
| ||colspan=6|'The meeting has ended'
|-
|}
::{|
|-
|width=40px align='right'| 2.)||''Naa'' ||''Hone''|| ''i''||''whaka-mutu''||''te''||'' hui''||
|-
| ||ACTGEN ||John||PAST|| cause-finished || the ||meeting
|-
| ||colspan=7|'John has ended the meeting'|| || || || || (ACTGEN= actual genitiv (Bauer)) 
|-
|}

:Bei Verben bei denen aufgrund von Lexikalisierung die ''whaka-''Form nicht möglich ist, wird meist ein periphrastischer Kausativ mit ''mea'' 'make, cause' angewendet:

::{|
|-
|width=40px align='right'| 1.)||''Kua'' ||''whara''|| ''taku''||'' koonui''||
|-
| ||PRF || hit accidentally || SG.GEN.2SG ||thumb
|-
| ||colspan=6|'I hurt my thumb' (lit.:'My thumb has been hurt')
|-
|}
::{|
|-
|width=40px align='right'| 2.)||''Naa'' ||''Hone''|| ''i''||''mea''||''kia''||''whara''||''taku''||''koonui''
|-
| ||ACTGEN ||John||PAST|| make || SBJV ||hurt||SG.GEN.2SG||thumb
|-
| ||colspan=7|'John made my thumb get hurt'|| (SBJV= subjunktive (Bauer)) 
|-
|}

:Für transitive und ditransitive Sätze wird nur ''mea'' 'make, cause' verwendet (irregulärer Passiv: ''meinga''):
::Bsp:
:::{|
|-
|width=40px align='left'| ''Naa'' ||''Pani''|| ''a''||''Pita''||''i''||''mea''||''ki''||''te''||''whaka-maoa''||''kai''
|-
| ACTGEN || Pani || PERS ||Peter||PAST||make||to||the||cause-cooked||food
|-
| colspan=9|'Pani made Peter cook the dinner'
|-
|}
:::{|
|-
|width=40px align='left'| ''I'' ||''meinga''|| ''a''||''Pita''||''e''||''Pani''||''ki''||''te''||''whaka-maoa''||''kai''
|-
| PAST || make.PASS || PERS ||Peter||by||Pani||to||the||cause-cooked||food
|-
| colspan=9|'Peter was made to cook the dinner by Pani'
|-
|}

== Literatur ==

*Bauer, W.: Maori.London: Routledge, 1993
*Chung, S. :Maori as an Accusative Language.Journal of the Polynesian Society Vol.86.S.355–370, 1976
*Chung, S. :Case Marking and Grammatical Relations in Polynesian Language, Vol. 57, No.1. S.198-205,1981
*Foster, J.: Ngā Kupu Whakamārama. Māori Grammar. Auckland: Reed, 1997 (eher Lehrbuch zum Erlernen von Maori)
*Harlow,R.: Māori. München:LINCOM EUROPA, 1996(Languages of the world: Materials; 20)
*Krupa, V.: The Maori Language. Moskau: Nauka, 1968
*Sinclair, M.B.W.: Is Maori an Ergative Language?. Journal of the Polynesian Society.Vol. 85. S.9–26, 1976

== Weblinks ==

http://www.tetaurawhiri.govt.nz

http://www.maori.org.nz/

http://www.maorilanguage.info

http://www.maorilanguage.net

[[Category:De]]
[[Category:Single language]]

Mangghuer

2021-01-04T08:24:34Z

Kirk Miller: comment-out useless infobox

Das '''Mangghuer''' (ISO 639-3: mjg), auch Monguor, Tu oder Tuzu genannt, ist eine mongolische Sprache. Sie wird in China, in den Provinzen Gansu [http://http://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gansu] und Qinghai[http://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Qinghai] gesprochen.


=Soziolinguistische Situation=
Mangghuer wird noch von ca. einem Viertel der Population der Monguor oder Tu gesprochen. Die aus dem Chinesischen stammede Bezeichnung Tu wird jedoch von den Sprechern selbst als pejorativ empfunden. Es gibt nur sehr wenige monolinguale Sprecher. Als Zweitsprachen werden vor allem [[Amdo]] ([http://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amdo|Wikipedia-Artikel])-Tibetisch und Chinesisch gelernt. Aufgrund des starken Sprachkontakts hat die Sprache viele Merkmale von den (im weitesten Sinne) umliegenden tibetischen, sinitischen und türkischen Sprachen übernommen.
Mangghuer gehört zum Qinghai-Gansu-[[Sprachbund]] ([http://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sprachbund|Wikipedia-Artikel]).
Man kann die Sprache in den Huzhu-Dialekt und den Minhe-Dialekt unterteilen. Die Dialekte unterscheiden sich hauptsächlich in ihrer Phonologie.

=Phonologie und Orthographie=
Mit seinem Phoneminventar und der einfachen Silbenstruktur (maximal CCVC) ähnelt Mangghuer sehr den umliegenden sinitischen Sprachen. Deshalb konnte die für das Chinesische entwickelte [[Pinyin]] ([http://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pinyin|Wikipedia-Artikel])-Umschrift gut für das Mangghuer adaptiert werden. Die Entwickler waren Zhu Yongzhong, Wang Xianzhen, Hu Ping und Hu Jun (alle Muttersprachler des Mangghuer).
Es gibt nur ein kleines Set von Onset-Clustern und wenige Koda-Konsonanten, das sich vereinfacht wie folgt darstellen lässt:

{|
|(a)||wenn C1C2, dann ist C2 /y,w/, C1 ist nicht identisch mit C2, C1 ist nicht /ng/
|-
|(b)||wenn nur C2, dann ist C2 nicht /ng/
|-
|(c)||C3 ist /r, ng, n, y, w/
|}

Vokalharmonie als ein häufiges Merkmal mongolischer Sprachen gibt es im Mangghuer nicht. Wir haben es trotz starkem sinitischen Einfluss auch nicht mit einer Tonsprache zu tun. Die Betonung ist vorhersagbar, ursprünglich mongolische Wörter werden üblicherweise auf der letzten Silbe betont. In Wörtern mit sinitischen Wurzeln jedoch ist eine Entwicklung hin zu phonemischen Unterschieden in der Betonung, i.e. zu Ton zu beobachten, wenn sie Hochtöne auf nicht-finalen Silben tragen.

=Morphosyntax=
Mangghuer ist eine kopf-finale SOV-Sprache: Die Argumente stehen vor dem Verb, nominale Modifikatoren und Relativsätze stehen vor dem Nomen, und es gibt Postpositionen. Es gibt ausschließlich Suffixe und Enklitika. Klitika sind Affixe, welche nicht auf eine bestimmte Wortkategorie spezialisiert sind, sondern am Ende von Phrasen erscheinen, d.h. Nominalphrasen, Postpositionalphrasen, oder nominalisierten Sätzen. Sie sind jedoch im Gegensatz zu Postpositionen phonologisch keine eigenen Wörter, was man im Mangghuer daran sehen kann, dass sie zu der Domäne der Wortbetonungsregel gehören. Klitika im Mangghuer markieren Kasus und Possession:

{|
|''=ni''||Akkusativ
|-
|''=ni''||Genitiv
|-
|''=la''||Instrumental/Komitativ
|-
|''=tai''||Komitativ
|-
|''=du''||Dativ
|-
|''=sa''||Ablativ
|-
|''=ji''||Direktiv
|-
|''=nang''||Reflexiv Possessiv
|-
|''=ni''||Possessiv
|-
|}

Nomen: Neben einfachen Nomen gibt es noch abgeleitete, nominalisierte Nomen, zum Beispiel Agensnomen durch das Suffix -''qin'', wie in ''kerliqin'' ´Bettler´von ''kerli'' ´fragen´. Es gibt auch Komposita, wie z.B. ''kuer wang'' ´Fußabdruck´. Adjektive können auch als Nomen verwendet werden.

Das Pronomen-Paradigma zeichnet sich durch zahlreiche suppletive Formen aus. So werden zum Beispiel im Plural neben Pluralsuffixen auch andere Stämme verwendet. Auch scheint es regionale Unterschiede, und Unterschiede im gewählten Register der Sprache zu geben.

Adjektive sind dadurch charakterisiert, dass sie das Komparativ-Suffix -''her'' nehmen können, und durch ''hudu'' ´sehr´modifiziert werden können, wie in ''hudu zaihang xujun'' ´sehr schöne Tochter´. Eine alternative Konstruktion für durch Adjektive modifizierte Nominalphrasen ist mit einem Genitiv am Adjektiv, die vermutlich auch auf sinitischen Einfluss zurückzuführen ist.

Verben werden nach Tempus, Aspekt, Modus und Person flektiert, und nach der Beteiligung/Perspektive des Sprechers zur Handlung. Die letzte Kategorie, die ausdrückt, inwieweit der Sprecher von der ausgedrückten Handlung betroffen oder in sie involviert ist, ähnelt sehr stark dem Evidentialsystem der tibetischen Sprachen.

Es gibt verschiedene Verbalisierer. Die häufigsten sind -''la'' und -''ke'' für Nomen, und -''tu'' für Adjektive. Beispiele wären ''burerla'' ´kalben´ aus ''burer'' ´Kalb´, und ''shuguotu'' ´groß werden´ von -''shuguo'' ´groß´.

=Valenzverändernde Konstruktionen=

==Verben mit unterschiedlicher Valenz==
Manche Verben haben verschiedene Valenzrahmen. In Beispiel (1) ist es dasselbe Verb, welches sowohl die Bedeutung von dt. "füttern" als auch von "verfüttern" hat. In (1a) ist das direkte Objekt der Rezipient, in (1b) ist es das Patiens. In (2) ist es der Unterschied zwischen dt. "etwas reiten" und "auf etwas reiten". Man sieht den Unterschied der Valenz am Dativ-Objekt in (b).

* (1a)
{|
|''bi''||''asi-si=nang''||''tiejie-ni''
|-
|1:SG||livestock.PL=REFLPOSS||feed-SUBJ:FUT
|}
Ich werde mein Vieh füttern.

*(1b)
{|
|''kebeghe=nang''||''bi''||''mori=du=nang''||''tiejie-ni''
|-
|wheat:bran=REFLPOSS||1:SG horse=DAT=REFLPOSS||feed-SUBJ:FUT
|}
Ich werde meinen Weizen an meine Pferde verfüttern.

*(2a)
{|
|''mori-si=nang''||''wuni''
|-
|horse-PL=REFLPOSS||ride
|}
Er ritt seine Pferde.

*(2b)
{|
|''tingsa''||''qi''||''muni''||''tiemie=du''||''wuni''||''sao''||''a''
|-
|then||2:SG||1:SG:GEN||camel=DAT||ride||sit||PRT
|}
Dann kannst du auf meinem Kamel reiten.

==Kausativ==
'''Intransitiv zu transitiv:'''

*(3a)
{|
|''gan=ni''||''aguer=ni''||''bieqin''||''ber-jiang''
|-
|3:SG=GEN||daughter=GEN||illness||become-OBJ:PERF
|}
Die Krankheit seiner Tochter wurde besser/linderte sich.

*(3b)
{|
|''qi''||''gan=ni''||''aguer=ni''||''ber-gha-lang
|-
|2:SG||3:SG=GEN||daughter=ACC||become-CAUSE-OBJ:IMPERF
|}
Du (kannst) seine Tochter gesund machen.

'''Transitiv zu ditransitiv:'''

Bei Kausativierungen transitiver Handlungen wird das ursprüngliche Subjekt (NOM) zum Kausatum und bekommt Dativ-Kasus, der Kausativ-Agens A1 bekommt Nominativ. Das Patiens bleibt im Akkusativ.
(Hierarchie: NOM → AKK → DAT)

*(4a)
{|
|''qi''||''muni''||''mugha=ni''||''bao''||''di''
|-
|2:SG||1:SG:GEN||meat=ACC||PROHIB||eat
|}
Iss nicht mein Fleisch.

* (4b)
{|
|''tasi''||''muni''||''songziwer=ni''||''nangda''||''di-gha-ji?''
|-
|2:PL||1:SG:GEN||grandson=ACC||1:SG:DAT||eat-CAUS-IMPERF
|}
Warum hast du mich dazu gebracht, meinen Enkel zu essen?
(aus einer Legende)

Die Kasusvergabe ist abhängig von der Valenz des Verbs, nicht von der Anzahl der overten Argumente:
*(5)
{|
|''Laoye''||''gan=du''||''ge''||''ji-gha-jiang''||''bai''
|-
|living:buddha||3:SG=DAT||once||look-CAUS.OBJ:PERF||EMPH
|}
Der Lebende Buddha ließ ihn sehen.

Andere themantische Rollen, die vom DAT (auch in Kausativkonstruktionen) abgedeckt werden, sind Lokativ und Benefaktiv. Vom Kontext wird deutlich, ob es sich dabei um ein A2 der Kausativkonstruktion handelt oder um ein Lokativ-/Benefaktiv-Objekt.
*(6)
{|
|''Jie=ni''||''aguer=du''||''tuosi''||''kaker''||''di-gha-ku''||''ger=du''||''sao-gha-lang''
|-
|self=GEN||daughter=DAT||oil||cake||eat-CAUSE-IMPERF||house=DAT||sit-CAUSE-OBJ:IMPERF
|}
(Die Stiefmutter) ließ ihre eigene Tochter Ölkuchen essen und zu Hause sitzen.

==Weitere Bemerkungen==
*(i)
Es gibt kein Passiv im Mangghuer, die Funktion eines Passivs (Hervorhebung des Objekts im Diskurs) wird durch Objekt-Voranstellung hergestellt.
*(ii)
Reflexive Handlungen werden durch Pronomen ausgedrückt.
*(iii)
Es gibt Auxiliarverben, welche mit der Valenz interagieren, sie jedoch nicht verändern. Sie können die Transitivität einer Handlung, oder die Betroffenheit eines Rezipienten von einem Ereignis betonen. Ihr Einsatz ist jedoch von diskurs-spezifischen Erfordernissen abhängig, d.h. vom Ermessen des Sprechers.

=Abkürzungen=
{|
|1,2,3||Person
|-
|DAT||Dativ
|-
|FUT||Futur
|-
|OBJ||Objekt
|-
|PL||Plural
|-
|REFLPOSS||Reflexiv-Possessiv (mein/dein/sein... eigenes)
|-
|SG||Singular
|-
|SUBJ||Subjekt
|}

=Literatur=
Slater, Keith 2003: A GRAMMAR OF MANGGHUER. London: Routledge Curzon.

=Links=
http://emeld.org/school/case/monguor/about.html

http://www.ethnologue.com/show_language.asp?code=mjg

[[Category:De]]
[[Category:Single language]]
[[Category:Mongolian]]

Lango

2021-01-04T08:21:59Z

Kirk Miller: comment-out useless infobox

'''Lango''' (ISO 639-3: laj) ist eine Sprache der [[nilo-saharanisch]]en Sprachfamilie, die ausschließlich in Uganda gesprochen wird. Die Sprecher des Lango leben vorwiegend im Zentrum des Landes und nördlich des [[Kyogasee]]s.Die Langosprecher machen zirka 5,6% der ugandischen Bevölkerung aus.

== Allgemeines ==
=== Klassifikation ===

Lango gehört der [[nilo-saharanischen]] Sprachfamilie an. Hinsichtlich der Grammatik und des Wortschatzes ist Lango sehr eng mit dem [[Acholi]] verwandt. Weitere Sprachverwandtschaften bestehen gegenüber dem [[Luo]] und dem [[Alur]].

=== Sprachgeschichte ===
Über die Sprachgeschichte des Lango ist sehr wenig bekannt. Einige Wissenschaftler behaupten, daß die Sprecher des Lango ursprünglich eine [[ostnilotische Sprache]] gesprochen haben, bevor sie in ihrem aktuellen Lebensraum eine [[westnilotische Sprache]] angenommen haben. Vielzählige Relikte innerhalb der Sprache, vor allem in der [[:category:Syntax|Syntax]] und dem Wortschatz, stützen diese These.

Die Sprache Lango wird manchmal fälschlicherweise, aufgrund der Mehrdeutigkeit des Wortes LANGO, mit zwei [[ethnischen Gruppen]] im [[Sudan]] in Zusammenhang gebracht. Diese Ethnien haben jedoch nichts mit der Lango-Sprache Ugandas zu tun. Erstere der beiden Volksgruppen spricht eine [[ostnilotische Sprache]] und steht im engen Zusammenhang mit den [[Lotuko]]. Die andere nennt sich [[Didinga]] und spricht eine [[Surma]]-Sprache.

=== Soziolinguistik ===
Es werden Zeitungen, Lehrmaterial und literarische Werke in Lango publiziert. Eine komplette Bibelübersetzung existiert seit 1979. Es gibt einige Radiokanäle, die in Lango senden.
Die mündliche sowie schriftliche Kommunikation unter den Langosprechern findet jedoch vorrangig in [[Englisch]], der Amtssprache Ugandas, statt.

== Phonologie ==

Das Lango verfügt über zehn Vokale und zweiundzwanzig Konsonanten:

=== Vokale ===

{| border="1"
|  
| style="background:#FEDBCA;" | [[vorn]]
| style="background:#FEDBCA;" | [[zentral]]
| style="background:#FEDBCA;" | [[hinten]]
|-
| style="background-color:#FEDBCA; text-align:left" | [[hoch]]
| style="text-align:center" | [[hohe vordere Vokale|{{IPA-Text|i ɪ}}]]
|  
| style="text-align:center" | [[hohe hintere Vokale|{{IPA-Text|u ʊ}}]]
|-
| style="background-color:#FEDBCA; text-align:left" | [[mittel]]
| style="text-align:center" | [[mittlere vordere VokalE|{{IPA-Text|e ɛ}}]]
| style="text-align:center" | [[mittlerer zentraler Vokal|{{IPA-Text|ə}}]]
| style="text-align:center" | [[mittlere hintere Vokale|{{IPA-Text|o ɔ}}]]
|-
| style="background-color:#FEDBCA; text-align:left" | [[tief]]
|  
| style="text-align:center" | [[tiefer zentraler Vokal|{{IPA-Text|a}}]]
|  
|}

=== Konsonanten ===

{| {{Prettytable}}
! rowspan="2" |  
! colspan="2" style="background-color:#B9FFC5" | [[bilabial]]
! colspan="2" style="background-color:#B9FFC5" | [[alveolar]]
! colspan="2" style="background-color:#B9FFC5" | [[palatal]]
! colspan="2" style="background-color:#B9FFC5" | [[velar]]
! colspan="2" style="background-color:#B9FFC5" | [[labio-velar]]
! colspan="2" style="background-color:#B9FFC5" | [[glottal]]
|-
|-style="text-align:center"
| style="width:1.7em; background-color:#B9FFC5" | [[Stimmlosigkeit|stl.]]
| style="width:1.7em; background-color:#B9FFC5; text-align:center" | [[Stimmhaftigkeit|sth.]]
| style="width:1.7em; background-color:#B9FFC5; text-align:center" | stl.
| style="width:1.7em; background-color:#B9FFC5; text-align:center" | sth.
| style="width:1.7em; background-color:#B9FFC5; text-align:center" | stl.
| style="width:1.7em; background-color:#B9FFC5; text-align:center" | sth.
| style="width:1.7em; background-color:#B9FFC5; text-align:center" | stl.
| style="width:1.7em; background-color:#B9FFC5; text-align:center" | sth.
| style="width:1.7em; background-color:#B9FFC5; text-align:center" | stl.
| style="width:1.7em; background-color:#B9FFC5; text-align:center" | sth.
| style="width:1.7em; background-color:#B9FFC5; text-align:center" | stl.
| style="width:1.7em; background-color:#B9FFC5; text-align:center" | sth.
|-
! style="background-color:#B9FFC5; text-align:left" | [[Plosiv]]e
| style="text-align:center" | [[Stimmloser bilabialer Plosiv|{{IPA-Text|p}}]]
| style="text-align:center" | [[Stimmhafter bilabialer Plosiv|{{IPA-Text|b}}]]
|  
|  
| style="text-align:center" | [[Stimmloser alveolarer Plosiv|{{IPA-Text|t}}]]
| style="text-align:center" | [[Stimmhafter alveolarer Plosiv|{{IPA-Text|d}}]]
| style="text-align:center" | [[Stimmloser velarer Plosiv|{{IPA-Text|k}}]]
| style="text-align:center" | [[Stimmhafter velarer Plosiv|{{IPA-Text|g}}]]
|  
|  
| style="text-align:center" | [[Stimmloser glottaler Plosiv|{{IPA-Text|ʔ}}]]
|  
|-
! style="background-color:#B9FFC5; text-align:left" | [[Nasal (Phonetik)|Nasal]]e
|  
| style="text-align:center" | [[Stimmhafter bilabialer Nasal|{{IPA-Text|m}}]]
|  
| style="text-align:center" | [[Stimmhafter alveolarer Nasal|{{IPA-Text|n}}]]
|  
| style="text-align:center" | [[Stimmhafter palataler Nasal|{{IPA-Text|ɲ}}]]
|  
| style="text-align:center" | [[Stimmhafter velarer Nasal|{{IPA-Text|ŋ}}]]
|  
|  
|  
|  
|-
! style="background-color:#B9FFC5; text-align:left" | [[Tap]]s
|  
|  
| style="text-align:center" | [[Stimmloser alveolarer Tap|{{IPA-Text|ɾ̥}}]]
| style="text-align:center" | [[Stimmhafter alveolarer Tap|{{IPA-Text|ɾ}}]]
|  
|  
|  
|  
|  
|  
|  
|  
|-
! style="background-color:#B9FFC5; text-align:left" | [[Frikativ]]e
| style="text-align:center" | [[Stimmloser bilabialer Frikativ|{{IPA-Text|ɸ}}]]
|  
| style="text-align:center" | [[Stimmloser alveolarer Frikativ|{{IPA-Text|s}}]]
|  
| style="text-align:center" | [[Stimmloser palataler Frikativ|{{IPA-Text|ɕ}}]]
|  
| style="text-align:center" | [[Stimmloser velarer Frikativ|{{IPA-Text|x}}]]
|  
|  
|  
|  
|  
|-
! style="background-color:#B9FFC5; text-align:left" | [[Affrikate]]n
|  
|  
|  
|  
| style="text-align:center" | [[Stimmlose palatale Affrikate|{{IPA-Text|tɕ}}]]
| style="text-align:center" | [[Stimmhafte palatale Affrikate|{{IPA-Text|dʑ}}]]
|  
|  
|  
|  
|  
|  
|-
! style="background-color:#B9FFC5; text-align:left" | [[Approximant]]en
|  
|  
|  
|  
|  
| style="text-align:center" | [[Stimmhafter palataler Approximant|{{IPA-Text|y}}]]
|  
|  
|  
| style="text-align:center" | [[Stimmhafter labio-velarer Approximant|{{IPA-Text|w}}]]
|  
|  
|-
! style="background-color:#B9FFC5; text-align:left" | laterale Approximanten
|  
|  
|  
| style="text-align:center" | [[Stimmhafter lateraler alveolarer Approximant|{{IPA-Text|l}}]]
|  
|  
|  
|  
|  
|  
|  
|  
|}

== Morphologie ==

=== Pluralbildung des Nomens ===

Nicht alle Nomen bilden distinktive Plurale. Plurale erscheinen nur bei menschlichen und tierischen Nomen sowie bei Nomen, die Werkzeuge und Hilfsmittel bezeichnen.
Das Lango kennt verschiedene Bildungsweisen des Plurals:

1) '''''-ê'''''

Dies scheint das produktivste Pluralsuffix des Lango zu sein, da es vor allem bei [[Neologismen]] und [[Lehnwörter]]n benutzt wird. Die Pluralbildung mit '-ê' ist weitgehend regulär. Das [[Ton]]muster des Singulars wird auch im Plural beibehalten.

{| border="1"
!style="background:#FEDBCA;" | Singular
!style="background:#FEDBCA;" | Plural
!style="background:#FEDBCA;" | Bedeutung
|-
|búk
|búkê
|Buch
|-
|m̀ɔt̀ɔka`
|m̀ɔt̀ɔkə̀ê
|Auto
|-
|dàktàl
|dàktə̀lê
|Doktor
|-
|rɛ̀c
|récê
|Fisch
|}

Einige wenige Unregelmäßigkeiten sind in dieser Klasse zu finden:

{| border="1"
!style="background:#FEDBCA;" | Singular
!style="background:#FEDBCA;" | Plural
!style="background:#FEDBCA;" | Bedeutung
|-
|dwè
|dwétê
|Monate
|-
|àwóbí
|àwòbè
|Junge
|}

2) ''''' -nì '''''

Dieses Pluralsuffix wird ebenfalls sehr häufig verwendet. Der stammauslautende Vokal geht hier jedoch verloren. Endet der Wortstamm auf einen Konsonanten, so wird dieser verdoppelt:

{| border "1"
!style="background:#FEDBCA;" | Singular
!style="background:#FEDBCA;" | Plural
!style="background:#FEDBCA;" | Bedeutung
|-
|làɔ`
|lə`nì
|Kleidungsstück
|-
|pàpò
|p`əppì
|Vater
|-
|t´ɔŋ
|tòŋŋì
|Speer
|}

Es gibt einige Unregelmäßigkeiten in den Tonmustern folgender Beispiele:

{| border "1"
!style="background:#FEDBCA;" | Singular
!style="background:#FEDBCA;" | Plural
!style="background:#FEDBCA;" | Bedeutung
|-
|gwôk
|gwóggî
|Hund
|-
|dyèl
|dyéggî
|Ziege
|}

3) ''''' -í '''''

Auch dieses Suffix ersetzt den stammauslautenden Vokal. Die Pluralformen haben hohe Töne:

{| border "1"
!style="background:#FEDBCA;" | Singular
!style="background:#FEDBCA;" | Plural
!style="background:#FEDBCA;" | Bedeutung
|-
|pàlà
|pə´lí
|Messer
|-
|dyàŋ
|dyə´ŋí
|Kuh
|-
|yàt
|yə´dí
|Baum
|-
|gɔ`t
|gódí
|Berg
|}

Es gibt auch hier Unregelmäßigkeiten bezüglich des Tonmusters. Zusätzlich wird ein wortfinales /t/ stimmhaft zu [d]:

{| border "1"
!style="background:#FEDBCA;" | Singular
!style="background:#FEDBCA;" | Plural
!style="background:#FEDBCA;" | Bedeutung
|-
|ɔ`t
|ùdì
|Haus
|-
|kẁɛ̀rɪ´
|kwèí
|Hacke
|}

4) ''''' ò- '''''

Sogenannte Agensnomen bilden den Plural, indem das Präfix 'à-' des Singular-Agensnomen gegen das Präfix 'ò-' ausgetauscht wird:

{| border="1"
!style="background:#FEDBCA;" | Singular
!style="background:#FEDBCA;" | Plural
!style="background:#FEDBCA;" | Bedeutung
|-
|àmɛ´ró
|òmɛ´ró
|Trinker
|-
|àdwôŋ
|òdɔ`ŋɔ`
|ältere Leute
|}

5) ''''' Weitere Suffixe '''''

Diese Klasse enthält verschiedene Wörter, von denen einige

1) der [[Suppletion]] unterliegen und

{| border="1"
!style="background:#FEDBCA;" | Singular
!style="background:#FEDBCA;" | Plural
!style="background:#FEDBCA;" | Bedeutung
|-
|dákô
|món
|Frau, Ehefrau
|-
|dánô
|jɔ`
|Person, Leute
|-
|ɪ`cɔ̂
|cɔ̂
|Mann, Ehemann
|-
|gɪ`n
|gìgù
|Sache
|}

2) andere seltene Pluralsuffixe verwenden

{| border="1"
!style="background:#FEDBCA;" | Singular
!style="background:#FEDBCA;" | Plural
!style="background:#FEDBCA;" | Bedeutung
|-
|àgâk
|àgákán
|Krähe
|-
|àmúrú
|àmúrútá
|Schenkel
|}

=== Verben ===

Zur Bildung transitiver und intransitiver Verbstämme sei auf den Unterpunkt "Transitivität" dieses Artikels verwiesen.

=== Adjektive ===

==== Adjektive und Verben ====

In vielerlei Hinsicht gleichen im Lango die Adjektive den Verben:

1) Ebenso wie Verben weisen sie Subjektkongruenz mittels Präfix auf:

{|
|-
| width=45px align='right' | a) ||| ''à-râc''
|-
| || 1s-böse.HAB
|-
| || colspan='3' | 'Ich bin böse.'
|-
|}

{|
|-
| width=45px align='right' | b) ||| ''ì-râc''
|-
| || 2s-böse.HAB
|-
| || colspan='3' | 'Du bist böse.'
|-
|}

{|
|-
| width=45px align='right' | c) ||| ''ø-ràc''
|-
| || 3s-böse.HAB
|-
| || colspan='3' | 'Er ist böse.'
|-
|}

2) Abgesehen von sogenannten [[assoziativen]] Konstruktionen gibt es im Lango keine grammatikalische Konstruktion, die [[attributiv]] oder [[uneingebettet]] ist. Adjektive sind im Lango daher immer [[prädikativ]]:

{|
|-
| width=45px align='right' | a) ||| ''kùll'' || ''à'' || ''ɲwé''
|-
| || Warzenschwein || CONSTR || 3s.stinkend.HAB
|-
| || colspan='3' | 'ein stinkendes Warzenschwein'
|-
|}

{|
|-
| width=45px align='right' | b) ||| ''kùl'' || ''ɲwé''
|-
| || Warzenschwein || 3s.stinkend.HAB
|-
| || colspan='3' | 'Das Warzenschwein stinkt.'
|-
|}

3) Adjektive können wie Verben [[Nominalisierung]] und [[Gerundium]] bilden.

Es gibt jedoch auch Punkte, in denen sich Adjektive von Verben unterscheiden.

1) Einige Adjektive haben unterschiedliche Stämme für Singular und Plural:

{|
|-
| width=45px align='right' | a) ||| ''twòl'' || ''ràc''
|-
| || Schlange || 3s.böse.SG.HAB
|-
| || colspan='3' | 'Die Schlange ist böse.'
|-
|}

{|
|-
| width=45px align='right' | b) ||| ''twòlê'' || ''rə`cù''
|-
| || Schlangen || 3s.böse.PL.HAB
|-
| || colspan='3' | 'Die Schlangen sind böse.'
|-
|}

Pluralnomen vergeben das Kongruenzmerkmal '3s', da das Merkmal '3p' nur den [[anaphorischen]] Subjekten vorbehalten ist. Kein Verb weist verschiedene Stämme für Singular und Plural auf.

2) Das Tonmuster bei Verben wird durch [[Aspekt]] und [[Modus]] bestimmt. Verben besitzen im habitualen Aspekt für zweisilbige Wörter das Tonmuster 'HHT' und für einsilbige Wörter 'HT':

{|
|-
| width=45px align='right' | a) ||| ''nɛ´nô''
|-
| ||3s.sehen.HAB
|-
| || colspan='3' | 'Er sieht es.'
|-
|}

{|
|-
| width=45px align='right' | b) ||| ''cɛˆm''
|-
| ||3s.essen.HAB
|-
| || colspan='3' | 'Er isst.'
|-
|}

Auch wenn Adjektive wie Verben Präfixe nutzen, um den habitualen Aspekt auszudrücken, halten sie jedoch nicht das strenge Verbtonmuster (wie Verben) ein. Adjektive haben individuelle Tonmuster, die jedoch den [[Sandhi]]-Tonregeln folgen:

{| border="1"
| ''nə`ŋ ràc '' || 'Das Krokodil ist böse.'
|-
| '' nə`ŋ ɲàp '' || 'Das Krokodil ist träge.'
|-
| '' nə`ŋ dwôŋ '' || 'Das Krokodil ist groß.'
|-
|'' nə`ŋ tɛˆk '' || 'Das Krokodil ist stark.'
|-
|'' nə`ŋ kɛ´ŋ '' || 'Das Krokodil ist dünn.'
|-
|'' nə`ŋ tɪ´dɪ´ '' || 'Das Krokodil ist klein.'
|-
|'' nə`ŋ bwògò '' || 'Das Krokodile ist jung.'
|}

3) Adjektive besitzen keine [[Infinitiv]]e und können auch keine [[Konjunktiv]]e bilden. Wenn die Bedeutung jedoch diese Formen verlangt, muß ein [[Kopula]]verb (z.B. ''bèdò'' (sitzen, bleiben, sein) oder ''dɔ`kɔ`'' (werden)) verwendet werden:

{|
|-
| width=45px align='right' | a) ||| ''àbɛˆr''
|-
| ||1s.gut.HAB
|-
| || colspan='3' | 'Ich bin gut/freundlich.'
|-
|}

{|
|-
| width=45px align='right' | b) ||| ''àmɪ´ttò || ''dɔ`kɔ`'' || ''bɛ`r''
|-
| ||1s.wollen.PROG || werden.INF || gut/freundlich
|-
| || colspan='3' | 'Ich will gut/freundlich sein.'
|-
|}

{|
|-
| width=45px align='right' | c) ||| ''ómɪ´ttò || ''dɔ`kɔ`'' || ''bɛ`r''
|-
| ||1p.wollen.PROG || werden.INF || gut/freundlich
|-
| || colspan='3' | 'Wir wollen gut/freundlich sein.'
|-
|}

==== Singular- und Pluralformen ====

Einige Adjektive haben unterschiedliche Formen im Singular und Plural.

{| border="1"
! Singular
! Plural
!Bedeutung
|-
|dît
|dìtò
|groß, alt, wichtig
|-
|dwôŋ
|dɔ̀ŋɔ̀
|groß, alt
|-
|ràc
|rə`cù
|böse
|-
|cèk
|cègù
|kurz
|-
|bòr
|bòcò
|lang, hoch, weit weg
|}

=== Präpositionen ===

Lango besitzt einige richtige Präpositionen, d.h. Wörter, die lokative oder relationale Beziehungen ausdrücken können, ohne komplexe phrasale Einheiten bilden zu müssen. Präpositionen sind Nomen offensichtlich ähnlich. Beispielsweise hat ''tɛ̂'' ('unten/unterhalb') auch die nominale Bedeutung 'Ende, Rücken, Rand' und wird so in nominalen [[Komposita]] verwendet: ''tɛ̂ pòtó'' ('Feldgrenze'), ''tɛ̂ wìc'' ('Hinterkopf'), ''tɛ̂ yít'' ('Ohrrücken').
Präpositionen mit wortfinalem Vokal fügen ein [[epenthetisches]] /r/ zwischen der Präposition und dem Suffix ein.
In der folgenden Tabelle sollen einige ausgewählte Präpositionen veranschaulicht werden:

{| border="1"
!
!mɛ̂ 'für'
!bòt 'zu'
!teˆ 'unterhalb'
!kà 'statt'
|-
|1s || mɛ´râ || bòtə´ || tɛ´râ || kàrá
|-
|2s || mérî || bòtì || térî || kə`rí
|-
|3s || mérɛ̂ || bòté || tɛ´rɛ̂ || kàrɛ`
|-
|1p || mɛ´wá || bòtwá || tɛ´wá || kàwá
|-
|2p || méwú || bòtwú || téwú || kə`wú
|-
|3p || mɛ´gɪ´ || bòtgɪ´ || tɛ´gɪ´ || kàgɪ´
|}

Die oben aufgeführten Präpositionen sind [[flektiert]]. Es gibt jedoch auch eine geringe Anzahl unflektierter wie bspw. ''bàlà'' ('wie, als'), auf das ein eigenständiges Pronomen folgt:

{| border="1"
!
! Bedeutung
|-
| bàlà án
| 'wie ich'
|-
| bàlà yɪ´n
| 'wie du'
|}

=== Komposita ===

[[Komposita]] können im Lango von Nomen und Infinitiven (von Verben) gebildet werden:

{|
|-
| width=45px align='right' | a) ||| ''wàŋ'' || ''ɔ`t''
|-
| || Auge || Haus
|-
| || colspan='3' | 'Fenster'
|-
|}

{|
|-
| width=45px align='right' | b) ||| ''ɔ`t'' || ''cɛ`m''
|-
| || Haus || essen.INF
|-
| || colspan='3' | 'Restaurant'
|-
|}

{|
|-
| width=45px align='right' | c) ||| ''ɲíg'' || ''wàŋ''
|-
| || Korn || Auge
|-
| || colspan='3' | 'Augapfel'
|-
|}

{|
|-
| width=45px align='right' | d) ||| ''dɔ´g'' || ''bɔ´'ŋɔ´''
|-
| || Mund || Kleidung
|-
| || colspan='3' | 'Saum'
|-
|}

{|
|-
| width=45px align='right' | e) ||| ''dɔ´g'' || ''deˆl''
|-
| || Mund || Haut/Rinde
|-
| || colspan='3' | 'Lippen'
|-
|}

{|
|-
| width=45px align='right' | f) ||| ''dyè'' || ''ɔ`t''
|-
| || Mitte || Haus
|-
| || colspan='3' | 'Flur/Stockwerk'
|-
|}

{|
|-
| width=45px align='right' | g) ||| ''dyè'' || ''tyɛ`n''
|-
| || Mitte || Bein/Fuß
|-
| || colspan='3' | 'Fußsohle'
|-
|}

{|
|-
| width=45px align='right' | h) ||| ''gwók'' || ''rɔ´mɔˆ''
|-
| || Hund || Schaf
|-
| || colspan='3' | 'Schäferhund'
|-
|}

Einige Wörter (bspw. ''wìc'' ('Kopf') und ''gɪ`n'' ('Sache', 'Ding')) verlieren ihren finalen Konsonanten, wenn sie Komposita bilden:

{|
|-
| width=45px align='right' | a) ||| ''wì'' || ''ɔ`t''
|-
| || Kopf || Haus
|-
| || colspan='3' | 'Dach'
|-
|}

{|
|-
| width=45px align='right' | b) ||| ''gɪ`'' || ''wìc''
|-
| || Ding || Kopf
|-
| || colspan='3' | 'Hut'
|-
|}

Anzumerken ist, daß ausschließlich Singularformen (der Wörter) für Komposita verwendet werden. Pronominalsuffixe werden an das Kompositum affigiert:

{|
|-
| width=45px align='right' | a) ||| ''ɔ`t'' || ''cɛ`mmá''
|-
| || Haus || essen.INF.1s
|-
| || colspan='3' | 'mein Restaurant'
|-
|}

{|
|-
| width=45px align='right' | b) ||| ''yòm'' || ''cwíɲé''
|-
| || Weichheit || Leber.3s
|-
| || colspan='3' | 'seine Heiterkeit'
|-
|}

{|
|-
| width=45px align='right' | c) ||| ''cwèr'' || ''cwíɲé''
|-
| || tropfen.INF || Leber.3s
|-
| || colspan='3' | 'seine Traurigkeit'
|-
|}

Es gibt einen weiteren Typ von Komposita. Diese drücken einen körperlichen Zustand, zumeist eine körperliche Behinderung aus (vgl. a). Hierbei können auch Singular- ('à-') und Pluralpräfixe ('ò-') (der sogenannten Agensnomen) angefügt werden (vgl. b und c):

{|
|-
| width=45px align='right' | a) ||| ''wàŋɛ`'' || ''òtɔ´ɔ`''
|-
| || Auge.3SG || 3PL.sterben.PFV
|-
| || colspan='3' | 'Er ist blind.' (wörtlich: 'Seine Augen starben.')
|-
|}

{|
|-
| width=45px align='right' | b) ||| ''àwàŋɛ`òtɔ´ɔ`''
|-
| || colspan='3' | 'eine blinde Person'
|-
|}

{|
|-
| width=45px align='right' | c) ||| ''òwàŋg̀ɪ´oˆtɔ´ɔ`''
|-
| || colspan='3' | 'die blinden Leute'
|-
|}

== Syntax ==

Lango verwendet [[grammatische Relationen]] wie [[Subjekt]] (Su) und [[direktes Objekt]] (DO), um [[semantische Rollen]] wie [[Agens]] und [[Patiens]] auszudrücken. Die [[Nomen]] sind nicht kasus[[markiert]] und es existieren auch keine [[Partikel]]n, die Subjekt- oder Objektrelationen ausdrücken.

=== Satzbau ===

Das Lango besitzt eine strikte Wortreihenfolge:

([[Topik]]) (Su) [[Verb]] ([[Benefaktiv]]) (DO) ([[Präpositionalphrase]]n) ([[Adverb]])

Die Topikposition kann durch jedes Nomen, unabhängig von dessen eigentlicher grammatischer Rolle im Satz, eingenommen werden. Gewöhnlich nimmt das Subjekt diese Position ein.
Das Subjekt ist eine obligatorische Komponente innerhalb der Sätze des Lango. Genauer gesagt ist die [[Referenz]] auf ein Subjekt obligatorisch, da das Subjekt selbst [[overt]] oder nicht overt sein kann.

''''' Subjekt '''''

Anmerkung: Die Beispiele folgen den [http://www.eva.mpg.de/lingua/files/morpheme.html Leipziger Glossierungsregeln].

{|
|-
| width=45px align='right' | a) ||| ''án'' || ''ácámò'' || ''dɛ̀k''
|-
| || ich || 1s.essen.PFV || Eintopf
|-
| || colspan='3' | 'Ich aß Eintopf.'
|-
|}

{|
|-
| width=45px align='right' | b) || ''ácámò'' || ''dɛ̀k''
|-
| || 1s.essen.PFV || Eintopf
|-
| || colspan='3' | 'Ich aß Eintopf.'
|-
|}

{|
|-
| width=45px align='right' | c) || ''lócə'' || ''òcàmò'' || ''dɛ̀k''
|-
| || Mann || 1s.essen.PFV || Eintopf
|-
| || colspan='3' | 'Der Mann aß Eintopf.'
|-
|}

{|
|-
| width=45px align='right' | d) || ''òcàmò'' || ''dɛ̀k''
|-
| || 1s.essen.PFV || Eintopf
|-
| || colspan='3' | 'Er aß Eintopf.'
|-
|}

''''' Benefaktiv '''''

Benefaktiv-Argumente folgen unmittelbar dem Verb, welches als Benefaktiv-Applikativ markiert ist (vgl. b):

{|
|-
| width=45px align='right' | a) || ''án '' || ''àdɔ̀k''
|-
| ||ich || 1s.zurückgehen.PFV
|-
| || colspan='3' | 'Ich ging zurück.'
|-
|}

{|
|-
| width=45px align='right' | b) || ''án '' || ''àdɔ̂kkɪ̀'' || ''dákô''
|-
| ||ich || 1s.zurückgehen.BEN.PFV || Frau
|-
| || colspan='3' | 'Ich ging der Frau zuliebe zurück.'
|-
|}

'''''Direktes Objekt (DO)'''''

Ein direktes Objekt, soweit vorhanden, folgt dem Benefaktiv (vgl. b):

{|
|-
| width=45px align='right' | a) || ''dákô '' || ''òtèdò'' || ''rìŋó''
|-
| ||Frau || 3s.kochen.PFV || Fleisch
|-
| || colspan='3' | 'Die Frau kochte das Fleisch.'
|-
|}

{|
|-
| width=45px align='right' | b) || ''dákô '' || ''òtèddɪ̀'' || ''locə̀'' || ''rìŋó''
|-
| ||Frau || 3s.kochen.BEN.PFV || Mann || Fleisch
|-
| || colspan='3' | 'Die Frau kochte das Fleisch für den Mann.'
|-
|}

Die Verben markieren neben dem Subjekt auch das direkte Objekt, aber nur unter der Bedingung, dass es sich um ein menschliches Objekt handelt. In a) ist das Objekt nicht explizit ausgedrückt, aber im Verb ist es durch ‚1s’ markiert. In b) hingegen ist das Objekt ‚mich’ explizit. In c) spielt lediglich der Akt des Sehens die entscheidene Rolle. Daher wird der intransitiv-agentivische Stamm verwendet. (Mehr zu intransitiv-agentivischen Stämmen siehe unter 4.2.1 ''Transtivität'')

{|
|-
| width=45px align='right' | a) || ''locə̀'' || ''ònɛ̀ná''
|-
| || Mann || 3s.sehen.PFV.1s
|-
| || colspan='3' | 'Der Mann sah mich.'
|-
|}

{|
|-
| width=45px align='right' | b) || ''locə̀'' || ''ònɛ̀ná'' || ''án''
|-
| || Mann || 3s.sehen.PFV.1s || mich
|-
| || colspan='3' | 'Der Mann sah mich.'
|-
|}

{|
|-
| width=45px align='right' | c) || ''án'' || ''ànénò''
|-
| || ich || 1s.sehen.PFV
|-
| || colspan='3' | 'Ich sah'. ('Ich war nicht blind.')
|-
|}

Nicht-menschliche direkte Objekte werden nicht pronominalisiert. Es wird ein transitives Verb verwendet; das Verb jedoch nicht für das Objekt markiert (vgl. b):

{|
|-
| width=45px align='right' | a) || ''ánɛ́nò'' || ''búk''
|-
| || 1s.sehen.PFV || Buch
|-
| || colspan='3' | 'Ich sah das Buch.'
|-
|}

{|
|-
| width=45px align='right' | b) || ''ánɛ́nò''
|-
| || 1s.sehen.PFV
|-
| || colspan='3' | 'Ich sah es.'
|-
|}

''''' Indirektes Objekt (IO) '''''

Ein [[indirektes Objekt]] (IO) erscheint als Objekt der Präposition ''bòt'' ('zu') falls es dem direkten Objekt (DO) folgt:

{|
|-
| width=45px align='right' | a) || ''lócə̀'' || ''òmɪ̀yò'' || ''búk'' || ''bòt'' || ''dákô''
|-
| || Mann || 3s.geben.PFV || Buch || zu || Frau
|-
| || colspan='3' | 'Der Mann gab das Buch der Frau.'
|-
|}

Falls ''bòt'' nicht verwendet werden soll, muß das IO dem DO vorangehen:

{|
|-
| width=45px align='right' | a) || ''lócə̀'' || ''òmɪ̀ỳò'' || ''dákô'' || ''búk''
|-
| || Mann || 3s.geben.PFV || Frau || Buch
|-
| || colspan='3' | 'Der Mann gab der Frau das Buch.'
|-
|}

Wenn sowohl Benefaktiv als auch IO im Satz vorkommen, so muß das IO mit ''bòt'' ausgedrückt werden:

{|
|-
| width=45px align='right' | a) || ''lócə̀'' || ''òmɪ̀ɪ̀ỳɪ̀'' || ''àtɪ̂n'' || ''búk''|| ''bòt'' ||''dákô''
|-
| || Mann || 3s.geben.BEN.PFV || Kind || Buch || zu || Frau
|-
| || colspan='3' | 'Der Mann gab der Frau das Buch für das Kind.'
|-
|}

Wenn das IO unmittelbar dem Verb folgt, veranlaßt es selbst, nicht das DO, Verbkongruenz:

{|
|-
| width=45px align='right' | a) || ''lócə̀'' || ''òmɪ̀ỳa´'' || ''búk''||
|-
| || Mann || 3s.geben.PFV.1s || Buch
|-
| || colspan='3' | 'Der Mann gab mir das Buch.'
|-
|}

In dem Fall, daß beide Objekte pronominalisiert sind, wird für das DO ein nicht-menschliches Objekt angenommen:

{|
|-
| width=45px align='right' | a) || ''lócə̀'' || ''òmɪ̀ỳa´''
|-
| || Mann || 3s.geben.PFV.1s
|-
| || colspan='3' | 'Der Mann gab es mir.'
|-
|}

Falls das pronominalisierte DO die Eigenschaft [+ human] besitzt, muß das IO als Objekt der Präpostion ''bo`t'' ausgedrückt werden:

{|
|-
| width=45px align='right' | a) || ''lócə̀'' || ''òmɪ̀ỳɛ´'' || ''bòtə́''
|-
| || Mann || 3s.geben.PFV.3s || zu.1s
|-
| || colspan='3' | 'Der Mann gab ihn (z.B. einen Sklaven) mir.'
|-
|}

=== Verbkomplex ===

Im Lango führt jede [[Valenzänderung]] des Verbs zu einer Veränderung des Verbstamms. Die meisten zusätzlichen Argumente, sogenannte [[Adjunkt]]e, können ohne jeglichen Einfluß auf den Verbstamm hinzugefügt werden. Die Adjunkte, abgesehen von Benefaktiven, bilden immer Präpositionalphrasen.
Die Verbstämme des Lango haben zwei, seltener drei, Wurzeln, die unterschiedliche Valenzschemata repräsentieren.

==== Transitivität ====

Man unterscheidet folgende drei Verbstämme des Lango:

* '''''transitiv (Tr)''''': Transitive Stämme beziehen sich auf eine Aktion/Zustand, die/der auf ein direktes Objekt verweist.

* '''''intransitiv-agentivisch (IA)''''': Intransitiv-agentivische Stämme verweisen lediglich auf die agentive Rolle innerhalb einer Aktion. Das Objekt, auf das diese Aktion gerichtet ist, ist dabei nicht von Interesse.

* '''''intransitiv-patientivisch (IP)''''': Das Argument, welches im transitiven Kontext ein direktes Objekt wäre, ist Subjekt in der entsprechenden intransitiv-patientivischen Form.

In diesem Zusammenhang sei darauf hingewiesen, daß Michael Noonan in seiner '''''"A Grammar of Lango"''''' andere [[Termini]] für die Verbstämme verwendet. Den intransitiv-agentivischen Verbstamm bezeichnet er als ''Activity Naming (AN)'' und den intransitiv-patientivischen Stamm benennt er ''Secondary Argument (SA)''.

Jeder Verbstamm im Lango ist für ein bestimmtes Valenzschema spezifiziert, so daß ein transitiver Verbstamm (Tr) nicht wie ein IA-Verbstamm gebraucht werden kann und umgekehrt.
Das Vorhandensein aller drei Verbstämme ist im Lango ziemlich selten. Nur das Verb ''nɛnɲ'' ('sehen') hat in der folgenden Tabelle drei Formen aufzuweisen. Grundsätzlich besitzt jedes Verb die transitive Form. Neben dieser kann es zusätzlich entweder einen IA- oder einen IP-Stamm aufweisen:

{| border=1
!width=200 |Tr
!width=200 |IA
!width=220 |IP
|-
|''nɛnnò'' 'sehen'
|''nénô'' 'sehen'
|''nên'' 'sichtbar sein'
|-
|''kàkkò'' 'teilen,zerbrechen'
|
|''kàk'' 'sich teilen,zerbrechen'
|-
|''wàllò'' 'kochen'
|
|''wálo ̂'' 'kochen, böse werden'
|-
|''tùkkò'' 'spielen'
|''tùkò'' 'spielen'
|
|-
|''càmmò'' 'essen'
|''cɛ̀m'' 'essen'
|
|}

'''''Beispiele'''''

1)

{|
|-
| width=45px align='right' | a) || ''locə̀'' || ''ònɛ̀nò'' || ''àtɪ̂n'' || '''Tr'''
|-
| || Mann || 3s.sehen.PFV || Kind
|-
| || colspan='3' | 'Der Mann sah das Kind.'
|-
|}

{|
|-
| width=45px align='right' | b) || ''dákô'' || ''bínô'' || ''nénô'' || '''IA'''
|-
| || Frau || 3s.kommen.HAB || sehen.INF
|-
| || colspan='3' | 'Die Frau wird sehen.'
|-
|}

{|
|-
| width=45px align='right' | c) || ''àtɪ̂nn'' || ''ànên'' || '''IP'''
|-
| || Kind || 3s.sichtbar.sein.PROG
|-
| || colspan='3' | 'Das Kind ist sichtbar./Das Kind ist zu sehen.'
|-
|}

2)

{|
|-
| width=45px align='right' | a) || ''áwàllò'' || ''pì'' || '''Tr'''
|-
| || 1s.kochen.PROG ||Wasser
|-
| || colspan='3' | 'Ich koche gerade Wasser.'
|-
|}

{|
|-
| width=45px align='right' | b) || ''pìì'' || ''àwálô'' || '''IP'''
|-
| || Wasser ||3s.kochen.PROG
|-
| || colspan='3' | 'Das Wasser kocht gerade.'
|-
|}

3)

{|
|-
| width=45px align='right' | a) || ''ácàmmò'' || ''dɛ̀k'' || '''Tr'''
|-
| || 1s.essen.PROG ||Eintopf
|-
| || colspan='3' | 'Ich esse gerade Eintopf.'
|-
|}

{|
|-
| width=45px align='right' | b) || ''ácɛ̀m'' || '''IA'''
|-
| || 1s.essen.PROG
|-
| || colspan='3' | 'Ich esse gerade.'
|-
|}

Es existieren grundsätzlich keine IA-/IP-Stämme ohne einen Tr-Verbstamm als Gegenspieler.

'''''Unterschied zwischen Tr-Stämmen und IA-Stämmen'''''

Die Tr- und IA-Formen unterscheiden sich nicht einfach nur in der An- oder Abwesenheit eines overten direkten Objektes (DO). Tatsächlich muß das DO bei transitiven Verbstämmen nicht overt sein. In diesem Falle unterscheidet es sich grundsätzlich in der Bedeutung von seinem intransitiv-agentivischen Gegenspieler (vgl. b und c):

{|
|-
| width=45px align='right' | a) || ''àcámò'' || ''dɛ̀k'' || '''Tr'''
|-
| || 1s.essen.PFV || Eintopf
|-
| || colspan='3' | 'Ich aß Eintopf.'
|-
|}

{|
|-
| width=45px align='right' | b) || ''àcámò''|| '''Tr'''
|-
| || 1s.essen.PFV
|-
| || colspan='3' | 'Ich aß es.'
|-
|}

{|
|-
| width=45px align='right' | c) || ''àcɛ́mò''|| '''IA'''
|-
| || 1s.essen.PFV
|-
| || colspan='3' | 'Ich aß.'
|-
|}

Auch ohne ein overtes DO drückt b) noch eine transitive Situation aus. Das heißt, Satz b) ist nur dann zutreffend, wenn das unausgedrückte DO für den Hörer aufgrund des Kontextes oder im Diskurs vorab genannt, bekannt ist. Beispiel c) bezieht sich nur auf die Handlung ohne Bezug auf ein Objekt. Dieser Satz ist dann treffend, wenn die Handlung des Essens selbst Gegenstand und ein konzeptuell vorhandenes Objekt irrelevant im bzw. für den Diskurs ist.

'''''Unterschied zwischen Tr-Stämmen und IP-Stämmen'''''

IP-Formen ähneln dem Passiv insofern, als ein DO eines Tr-Stamms das Subjekt eines IP-Verbs ist. Intransitiv-patientivische Verbstämme sollten jedoch aus verschiedenen Gründen nicht als Passiv verstanden werden. Ein Grund dafür ist, daß nicht alle Tr-Stämme einen IP-Stamm als Gegenspieler besitzen. Tr-Verben wie ''dɛ̀ppò'' (sammeln) oder ''ɡɛ̀ɛ̀rò'' (bauen) haben keine korrespondierenden IP-Stämme. Tr-Verben tragen, im Unterschied zu IP-Stämmen, ein auslautendes '-o':

{|
|-
| width=45px align='right' | a) || ''dàktàl'' || ''òcaŋò''|| ''lócə'' || '''Tr'''
|-
| || Doktor || 3s.heilen.PFV || Mann
|-
| || colspan='3' | 'Der Doktor heilte den Mann'
|-
|}

{|
|-
| width=45px align='right' | b) || ''lócə́'' || ''òcàŋ''|| '''IP'''
|-
| || Mann|| 3s.sich.erholen.PFV ||
|-
| || colspan='3' | 'Der Mann erholte sich/erlangte seine Gesundheit wieder.'
|-
|}

Der Mangel an Produktivität und Markiertheit ist sicherlich ein wichtiger, aber nicht entscheidener Faktor, um IP-Verben nicht als Passiv zu betrachten. Der wichtigste Grund ist, daß IP-Verbstämme die tatsächliche passivische Bedeutung verfehlen.(Beim Passiv ist ein externes Agens mindestens konzeptuell vorhanden.) Sie können agentive Subjekte besitzen:

{|
|-
| width=45px align='right' | a) || ''lócə́ə́'' || ''àə̀mo''|| '''IP'''
|-
| || Mann|| 3s.gähnen.PROG ||
|-
| || colspan='3' | 'Der Mann gähnt gerade.'
|-
|}

{|
|-
| width=45px align='right' | b) || ''dákô'' || ''òdɔ̀k''|| '''IP'''
|-
| || Frau|| 3s.zurückgehen.PFV ||
|-
| || colspan='3' | 'Die Frau ging zurück.'
|-
|}

In diesen Beispielen ist eine Einwirkung von außen, d.h. durch einen nicht genannten externen Agens, nicht impliziert. Anders gesagt, Satz b) kann nicht 'Die Frau wurde zurück gebracht.' bedeuten, weil es sonst einen eindeutigen Hinweis auf einen nicht-overtes Subjekt, einen externen Agens, gäbe.

Zusammenfassend läßt sich sagen, daß im Lango jeder Verbstamm mit einem transitiven Valenzschema (Tr) einen anderen Verbstamm mit einem intransitiven Valenzschema (IA/IP) haben kann. Das Subjekt entspricht dann a) dem Subjekt des Tr-Stammes (vgl. IA) oder b) dem DO des Tr-Stammes (vgl. IP).

'''''Produktivität'''''

Die Mehrheit der Verben im Lango unterscheiden einen Tr-Valenzschema von einem IA- oder IP-Valenzschema. Es stellt sich die Frage, inwiefern ein Tr-Verbstamm als Gegenspieler entweder einen IA- oder einen IP-Gegenspieler festlegt.

Ob ein Tr-Verbstamm einen IA-, einen IP- oder keinen intransitiven Gegenspieler haben wird, ist von der Bedeutung des Tr-Verbstammes selbst und den Details seines Valenzschemas abhängig.

Wenn ein Tr-Stamm ein belebtes Subjekt und ein unbelebtes DO besitzt, wird es folglich einen IA-Stamm als Gegenspieler haben. Das Verb beschreibt Aktivitäten wie:

*alltägliche Tätigkeiten: essen, vortragen, lesen, rasieren, fegen, Essen vorbereiten

*physiologische Funktionen: erbrechen

*wirtschaftliche Aktiviäten, die sich auf das Pflanzen, die Versorgung und die Zubereitung von Hirse und anderen Feldfrüchten beziehen oder den Hausbau betreffen

*geschäftliche Aktivitäten wie bspw. Handel

In allen Fällen ist der Gegenstand für die traditionelle Lango-Sprechergemeinschaft innerhalb des Diskurses vorhersagbar, so daß dessen Auslassung zu keinem Informationsverlust führt. Die Aktivität selbst (und nicht die auf ein Objekt gerichtete Aktivität) ist im kommunikativen Sinne bedeutend. So kann ein Tr-Verb wie ''dìnnò'' (dreschen) nur ''kál'' (Getreide) als Objekt haben. Ein Tr-Verb ''dɛ̀ppò'' (sammeln) läßt hingegen mehrere Objektvarianten zu. Jedoch wird bei dessen Auslassung von den Sprechern alles problemlos verstanden, da Informationen über Jahreszeiten, Subjekt etc. hierbei vom Kontext geliefert werden, der das einwandfreie Verstehen letztlich gewährleistet.
Die IA-Gegenspieler für die beiden Verben sind ''dínô'' und ''dépô''.

Im Fall von Tr-/IP-Paaren beschreibt das Tr-Verb typischerweise die Verursachung körperlicher Reaktionen; das IP-Verb hingegen beschreibt den Akt selbst:

'''Tr''': 'àmmò' (verursachen zu gähnen) '''IP''': 'ə̀mô' (gähnen)

Tr-Verben können auch eine Zustandsveränderung beschreiben, das IP-Verb beschreibt dann den resultierenden Zustand:

'''Tr''': 'kwèèyò' (kühlen) '''IP''': 'kwèè' (kühl/gekühlt sein)

'''Tr''': 'dɔ`ŋŋɔ`' (wachsen) '''IP''': 'dwôŋ' (groß sein)

Für einige Tr-/IP-Paare ist das Tr-Subjekt notwendigerweise belebt. Das gilt für Verben wie ''dàkkò'' (transferieren), ''dwɔ̀kkɔ̀'' (zurückbringen) und ''kɔ̀bbɔ̀'' (transferieren):

{|
|-
| width=45px align='right' | a) || ''àdɔ̂k'' || '''IP'''
|-
| || 1s.zurückgehen.PFV
|-
| || colspan='3' | 'Ich ging zurück.'
|-
|}

Für Tr-/IP-Paare gilt, daß das DO des Tr-Verbs nicht stereotypisch oder vorhersagbar ist(im Gegensatz zum DO des Tr-Verbs für Tr-/IA-Paare).

Verben wie ''jwàttò'' (schlagen) und ''cwàllò'' (schicken/senden) haben weder IA- noch IP-Gegenspieler, da weder Agens noch Patiens stereotypisch oder irrelevant innerhalb einer kommunikativen Situation sind.

==== Medium ====

Die fundamentale Funktion des [[Medium]]s im Lango ist zu signalisieren, daß das Subjekt durch die Wirkung eines Verbs beeinflußt wurde. Das Medium schließt sowohl [[reflexive]] und [[reziproke]] als auch IP-Bedeutungen ein. Jegliche Verwendung des Mediums beinhaltet, daß das Subjekt als eine beeinflußte [[Entität]] zu verstehen ist.
Der intransitive Charakter des Lango-Mediums wird in seinem reflexiven Gebrauch deutlich. Das Medium wird im Lango durch [[Suffigierung]] gebildet und an den Tr-Verbstamm gehängt. Formen der Suffixe sind ''-ɛ̂ '' und ''-ɛ́rɛ̂''.

Die meisten Verbstämme, die keinen IP-Stamm besitzen, konstruieren ein IP-Valenzschema mittels des Mediums:

{|
|-
| width=45px align='right' | a) || ''àtɪ̂n'' || ''òcègò'' || ''dɔ́ggɔ́lâ'' || '''Tr'''
|-
| || Kind || 3s.schließen.PFV || Tür
|-
| || colspan='3' | 'Das Kind schloß die Tür.'
|-
|}

{|
|-
| width=45px align='right' | b) ||''dɔ́ggɔ́lâ'' || ''òcègérê'' || '''Medium-IP'''
|-
| || Tür || 3s.schließen.MED.PFV ||
|-
| || colspan='3' | 'Die Tür schloss sich.'
|-
|}

{|
|-
| width=45px align='right' | c) || ''lócà'' || ''òtèdò'' || ''rìŋó'' || '''Tr'''
|-
| || Mann || 3s.kochen.PFV || Fleisch
|-
| || colspan='3' | 'Der Mann kochte das Fleisch.'
|-
|}

{|
|-
| width=45px align='right' | d) || ''rìŋó'' || ''òtèddê'' || '''Medium-IP'''
|-
| || Fleisch || 3s.kochen.MED.PFV
|-
| || colspan='3' | 'Das Fleisch kochte.'
|-
|}

Existiert zu einem transitiven Verb auch ein IP-Stamm, wird dieser für die Konstruktion des Mediums verwendet. Somit wird jegliche externe Einwirkung ausgeschlossen (vgl. f):

{|
|-
| width=45px align='right' | e) || ''án'' || ''àmɛ́ò'' || ''pɛ̀'' || '''Tr'''
|-
| || ich || 1s.schmelzen.PFV || Eis
|-
| || colspan='3' | 'Ich schmolz das Eis.'
|-
|}

{|
|-
| width=45px align='right' | f) || ''pɛ̀ɛ̀'' || ''àmɛ̀ɛ̀yɛ'' || '''Medium-IP'''
|-
| || Eis || 3s.schmelzen.MED.PROG
|-
| || colspan='3' | 'Das Eis schmilzt (gerade).'
|-
|}

Das Medium wird auch für reflexiven Gebrauch eingesetzt, wenn das Subjekt mit dem direkten Objekt [[koreferentiell]] sind:

{|
|-
| width=45px align='right' | a) || ''gwôk'' || ''òkààyɛ̂''
|-
| || Hund || 3s.beißen.MED.PFV
|-
| || colspan='3' | 'Der Hund biß sich selbst.'
|-
|}

Das Reflexivpronomen ''kɛ́n-'' ist in diesen Fällen optional:

{|
|-
| width=45px align='right' | b) || ''gwôk'' || ''òkààyɛ̂'' || ''kɛ́nɛ̂''
|-
| || Hund || 3s.beißen.MED.PFV || selbst.3sa
|-
| || colspan='3' | 'Der Hund biß sich selbst.'
|-
|}

Wenn das Subjekt mit einem anderen Argument als dem direkten Objekt koreferentiell ist, wird das Medium nicht benutzt:

{|
|-
| width=45px align='right' | c) || ''òkélò'' || ''òkòbbɪ̀'' || ''àlábá'' || ''pɪ̀rɛ̀'' || ''kɛ́nɛ̂''
|-
| || Okelo || 3s.sagen.BEN.PFV || Alaba || über.3s || selbst.3sa
|-
| || colspan='3' | 'Okelo sprach mit Alaba über ihn.'
|-
|}

Das Medium hat auch reziproke Bedeutung:

{|
|-
| width=45px align='right' | a) || ''gɪ́n'' || ''ògɔ̀ɔ̀yɛ̂''
|-
| || sie || 3p.schlagen.MED.PFV
|-
| || colspan='3' | 'Sie schlugen sich gegenseitig.'
|-
|}

Dieses Beispiel könnte auch bedeuten: 'Sie schlugen sich selbst.' Doch hier ist erstere Bedeutung beabsichtigt. Das Reflexivpronomen ''kɛ́n-'' wird zur Verstärkung des reflexiven Sinns verwendet:

{|
|-
| width=45px align='right' | b) || ''gɪ́n'' || ''ògɔ̀ɔ̀yɛ̂'' || ''kɛ́ngɪ́''
|-
| || sie || 3p.schlagen.MED.PFV || selbst.3sa
|-
| || colspan='3' | 'Sie schlugen sich selbst.'
|-
|}

Das Medium kann ausschließlich nur mit nicht-statischen Verben gebildet werden. Prädikate wie ''tíê'' (anwesend/präsent sein) und ''tàmmò'' (denken) können daher kein Medium bilden. Wenn das Tr-Verb ein unbelebtes direktes Objekt (DO) besitzt, kann dieses mittels Medium zum Subjekt mit einer IP-Interpretation gemacht werden.
Wenn das DO des Tr-Verbs belebt ist, dann wird es mit Anwendung des Medium zum Subjekt und erhält eine reflexive Bedeutung.
Die Tr-Verben ''tèddò'' (kochen) und ''pyɛ̀ttò'' (trennen) haben eine IP-Deutung, weil sie unbelebte direkte Objekte besitzen (d.h. das Subjekt ist nicht mit dem direkten Objekt koreferentiell) und ''lɪ̀kkò'' (mit jemanden kämpfen) sowie ''gwèɲɲò'' ((zer)-kratzen) haben eine reflexive Bedeutung:

{|
|-
| width=45px align='right' | a) || ''rìŋó'' || ''òtèddɛ̂''
|-
| || Fleisch || 3s.kochen.MED.PFV
|-
| || colspan='3' | 'Das Fleisch wurde gekocht.'
|-
|}

{|
|-
| width=45px align='right' | b) || ''kál'' || ''òpyɛ̀ttɛ''
|-
| || Getreide || 3s.trennen.MED.PFV
|-
| || colspan='3' | 'Das Getreide wurde getrennt.'
|-
|}

{|
|-
| width=45px align='right' | c) || ''òcàká'' || ''òlɪ̀kɛ́rê''
|-
| || Ochaka || 3s.kämpfen.mit.MED.PFV
|-
| || colspan='3' | 'Ochaka kämpfte mit sich selbst.'
|-
|}

{|
|-
| width=45px align='right' | d) || ''òpɪ́ô'' || ''ògwèɲére''
|-
| || Opio || 3s.kratzen.MED.PFV
|-
| || colspan='3' | 'Ochaka kratzte sich selbst.'
|-
|}

Das Medium tritt ab und zu auch in Kontexten auf, wo normalerweise ein IA-Verb erwartet wird. In diesem Fall scheint das Medium gewählt zu werden, weil das Subjekt hier als eine vom Verb beeinflusste Entität hervorgehoben werden soll:

{|
|-
| width=45px align='right' | a) || ''dákô'' || ''ògìkò'' || ''ɲwàl'' || '''IA'''
|-
| || Frau || 3s.aufhören.PFV || gebären.INF
|-
| || colspan='3' | 'Die Frau hörte auf, Kinder zu gebären.'
|-
|}

{|
|-
| width=45px align='right' | b) || ''dákô'' || ''ògìkò'' || ''ɲwàllɛ̂'' || '''Medium'''
|-
| || Frau || 3s.aufhören.PFV || gebären.MED.INF
|-
| || colspan='3' | 'Die Frau hörte auf, Kinder zu gebären.'
|-
|}

Beispiel a) drückt den Fakt des Aufhörens an sich aus. Beispiel b) trägt zusätzlich die Bedeutung bei, daß die Frau durch das Gebären nachteilig beeinflußt wurde.

==== Benefaktive und Ventiv-Stämme ====

'Ventive stems' sind nur bei einer geringen Zahl von Bewegungsverben vorhanden und werden durch den Anfügen des Suffixes ''-ô'' an den Stamm gebildet. Das Valenzschema, das durch den 'ventive-Stamm' repräsentiert wird, variiert. Grundsätzlich gilt jedoch, daß die Handlung stets auf den Sprecher gerichtet ist. So hat beispielsweise der ventive-Stamm ''cwàllô'' ((zu mir) schicken) die gleiche Valenz wie das Tr-Verb ''cwàllò'' (schicken), aber eine zusätzliche Referenz auf die 1. Person, den Sprecher (vgl. b):

{|
|-
| width=45px align='right' | a) || ''dákô'' || ''òcwàlò'' || ''búk'' || ''bòtgɪ́'' || '''Tr'''
|-
| || Frau || 3s.schicken.PFV || Buch || zu.3p
|-
| || colspan='3' | 'Die Frau schickte das Buch zu ihnen.'
|-
|}

{|
|-
| width=45px align='right' | b) || ''dákô'' || ''òcwàllô'' || ''búk'' || '''Ventiv'''
|-
| || Frau || 3s.schicken.VEN.PFV || Buch
|-
| || colspan='3' | 'Die Frau schickte mir das Buch.'
|-
|}

Der Ventive-Stamm ''rìŋŋô''((zu mir) rennen) leitet sich vom IA-Stamm ''rìŋò'' (rennen) ab:

{|
|-
| width=45px align='right' | a) || ''atɪ̂n'' || ''òrìŋŋô'' || '''Ventiv'''
|-
| || Kind || 3s.rennen.VEN.PFV ||
|-
| || colspan='3' | 'Das Kind rannte zu mir.'
|-
|}

Im Gegensatz dazu leitet sich der Ventive-Stamm ''mòllô''((zu mir)schwimmen, treiben) vom IP-Stamm ''mɔ̀l'' (schwimmen, treiben) ab:

{|
|-
| width=45px align='right' | a) || '' yàt'' || ''òmòllo'' || '''Ventiv'''
|-
| || Das Holzfass || 3s.treiben.VEN.PFV ||
|-
| || colspan='3' | 'Das Holzfass trieb auf mich zu.'
|-
|}

[[Benefaktive]] können sowohl mit transitiven als auch intransitiven Verbstämmen gebildet werden, die ein agentives Subjekt besitzen. Zusätzlich zu den valenzsaturierenden Argumenten wird ein zusätzliches Argument eingeführt. Die Valenz des Verbs erhöht sich.

Das Tr-Verb ''cwàllò'' (schicken) bekommt in b) ein zusätzliches Kernargument durch den Benefaktiv:

{|
|-
| width=45px align='right' | a) || ''dákô'' || ''òcwàlò'' || ''búk'' || ''bòtgɪ́'' || '''Tr'''
|-
| || Frau || 3s.senden.PFV || Buch || zu.3p
|-
| || colspan='3' | 'Die Frau sandte das Buch zu ihnen.'
|-
|}

{|
|-
| width=45px align='right' | b) || ''dákô'' || ''òcwàllɪ̀'' || ''àtîn'' || ''búk'' || ''bòtgɪ́''|| '''Tr-BEN'''
|-
| || Frau || 3s.senden.BEN.PFV || Kind || Buch || zu.3p
|-
| || colspan='3' | 'Die Frau sandte das Buch für das Kind zu ihnen.'
|-
|}

Das Suffix ''-ɪ̀'' wird an den Verbstamm angefügt, wenn es sich bei dem Benefaktiv-Argument um ein Nomen oder ein nicht-menschliches Pronomen der 3. Person Singular handelt (vgl. b). In allen anderen Fällen wird das jeweilige Pronomen-Suffix des DO verwendet (vgl. d):

{|
|-
| width=45px align='right' | a) || ''òkèlo'' || '''Tr'''
|-
| || 3s.bringen.PFV
|-
| || colspan='3' | 'Er brachte es.'
|-
|}

{|
|-
| width=45px align='right' | b) || ''òkèllɪ̀'' || ''dákô'' || '''Tr-BEN'''
|-
| || 3s.bringen.BEN.PFV || Frau
|-
| || colspan='3' | 'Er brachte es für die Frau.'
|-
|}

{|
|-
| width=45px align='right' | c) || ''òkèlá'' || '''Tr'''
|-
| || 3s.bringen.PFV.1s
|-
| || colspan='3' | 'Er brachte mich.'
|-
|}

{|
|-
| width=45px align='right' | d) || ''òkèllá'' || '''Tr-BEN'''
|-
| || 3s.bringen.BEN.PFV.1s
|-
| || colspan='3' | 'Er brachte es für mich.'
|-
|}

Benefaktive können sowohl bei transitiven als auch intransitiven Verben eingeführt werden. Die folgenden Beispiele zeigen die Verben ''lèggò'' (Tr: beten zu jmd) und ''légô'' (IA: beten) mit Benefaktiven:

{|
|-
| width=45px align='right' | a) || ''òlɛ̀ggá'' || ''òbáŋá'' || '''Tr-BEN'''
|-
| ||3s.beten.BEN.PFV.1s || Gott
|-
| || colspan='3' | 'Er betete für mich zu Gott.'
|-
|}

{|
|-
| width=45px align='right' | b) || ''òlèggə́'' || '''IA-BEN'''
|-
| ||3s.beten.BEN.PFV.1s
|-
| || colspan='3' | 'Er betete für mich.'
|-
|}

== Literatur ==
Noonan, Michael (1992): ''A grammar of Lango.''(Mouton Grammar Library,8.) Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter.

== Weblinks ==

http://www.ethnologue.com/14/show_language.asp?code=LAJ [08.06.2006]

http://www.worldlanguage.com/Languages/Lango/htm [08.06.2006]

[http://www.eva.mpg.de/lingua/files/morpheme.html Leipziger Glossierungsregeln] [11.06.2006]

[[Category:De]]
[[Category:Single language]]

Thüringisch

2021-01-04T08:19:44Z

Kirk Miller:

Das Thüringische gehört zum ostmitteldeutschen Sprachraum und ist verbreitet im Gebiet nördlich des Thüringer Waldes bis zum Harz, zwischen der Werra im Westen und dem Altenburger Land im Osten.

==Übersicht über die ostmitteldeutschen Dialekte==
Der ostmitteldeutsche Dialektraum untergliedert sich in sieben Dialektverbände. Die kurze Übersicht folgt der Untergliederung Putschkes, ebenso die Verwendung der Begriffe Dialektverbände [= Menge der Dialektgruppen mit mindestens einem gemeinsamen Definitionsmerkmal; großräumige Untergruppe eines
Dialektraumes] vs. Dialektgruppe [= kleinräumige Untergruppe eines Dialektverbandes].

'''Dialektverbände und ihre Merkmale'''
[-x Realisation des en-Auslautes; x- Realisation des er-Präfixes; x Realisation des Artikels im Dativ Plural]

*Thüringisch: -e, Ø; er-
*Obersächsisch: -en; der-
*Lausitzisch-Neumärkisch: -en; er-
*Schlesisch: da; der-
*Böhmisch: dan, dean; da-
*Nordmährisch: dan; de-
*Hochpreußisch: -e; de

==Thüringische Dialekträume==
Aufgrund der Arbeit am Thüringischen Wörterbuch hat sich die Untergliederung des thüringischen Dialektverbandes, von Rosenkranz [und seiner Darstellung folgend auch Putschke] auf sechs Dialektgruppen angesetzt, inzwischen auf neun Gruppen erweitert:

*Das Zentralthüringische , welches sich nach Rosenkranz/Putschke in (1)West- [mit Erhaltung der Monophthonge] und (2)Ostthüringisch [Durchführung der Diphthonge] unterteilt. Die Bestimmungsmerkmale sind durch die mitteldeutsche Senkung gegeben. Das Thüringische Wörterbuch [Thür. Wb.] differenziert außerdem noch in (3)Zentralthüringisch und (4)Ilmthüringisch.
*Das Nordthüringische mit den Dialekträumen Honsteinisch, Sondershäusisch, Eichsfeldisch und Südmansfeldisch. Dieses Gebiet führt die mitteldeutsche Senkung nicht durch. Das Thür. Wb. setzt Eichsfeldisch als Teilraum von (5)Nordthüringisch, Mansfeldisch als Teilraum von (6)Nordostthüringisch an.
*Die letzte Untergliederung nimmt nur noch das Thür. Wb. vor. Es unterteilt die südliche Sprachlandschaft Thüringens in das (7)Hennebergische, (8)Itzgründische und (9)Südostthüringische.

==Thüringisches Wörterbuch==
Das Thüringische Wörterbuch [ThürWb] dient vielen populärwissenschaftlichen Wörterbüchern als Materialgrundlage. Die Grundlage des ThürWb bilden reichlich 5 Millionen Wortbelege aus 3100 Gemeinden und Ortsteilen, welche u.a. durch Aufrufe an die interessierte Bevölkerung zur Mitarbeit [Beantwortung von Fragebögen; Einsenden von frei gesammeltem Material] und jeglichen erreichbaren Abhandlungen über die thüringische Mundart in einem Zeitraum von 80 bis 90 Jahren zusammengetragen wurden. [Ebenfalls Berücksichtigung fanden Mundartliteratur, Heimatschrifttum und historisches Schrifftum in Auswahl.]

Eine lexikologische Neuerung findet sich bei der Artikelgestaltung: Obwohl die Artikel zunächst semasiologisch, d.h. den Bedeutungsinhalt des sprachlichen Zeichens beschreibend, aufgebaut sind, gibt es zusätzlich ein auf vorkommende Heteronyme hinweisendes System. Somit stellt das ThürWb auch eine Vernetzung der Artikel auf der onomasiologischen Ebene her.

Die Lemmata des ThürWb sind alphabetisch geordnet und meistens in hochsprachlicher Form angesetzt, wenn eine direkte schriftsprachliche Entsprechung zugrunde liegt. Nach dem Lemma folgt im jeweiligen Artikel die grammatische Kategorisierung des Lexems, anschließend Angaben zu Semantik, Verbreitung [bei Verbreitung im gesamten Sprachraum mit allg. gekennzeichnet; den entsprechenden Sprachraum mit seiner Abkürzung bezeichnend oder durch die jeweilige Kreisbezeichnung] und teilweise Belegdichte, Mundartbeispiel, Varianten. Nicht-obligatorische Artikelangaben wie z.B. Hinweise zu Etymologie, Volkskunde und Lautformen in Teuthonista-Lautschrift stehen im ThürWb am Ende eines Artikels kleingedruckt, dort sind ebenfalls Verweise auf den Beiband zu finden.

==Syntaktische Besonderheiten des Thüringischen==
===Nomina und Artikel===
Die Genera des Substantivs stimmen im Wesentlichen mit der Standardsprache überein; eine prägnante Ausnahme bildet lediglich das nördliche Eichsfeldische, welches jedem weiblichen Wesen das neutrale Geschlecht zuweist.

*''mir ist das egal, ob er kommt oder es; und Inge, das aß keinen Käse''

Gleiches gilt für den Numerus, jedoch kann an Wörter mit Nullplural im nördlichen Nord-, und Nordostthüringischen auch ein s-Morphem antreten und somit die Pluralmarkierung ersetzen.

*''Hammels; Haufens; Enkels; Messersch''

Dieses Morphem ersetzt teilweise auch die Pluralumlautung [''Nagels; Wagens'']. In der thüringischen Mundart werden die Kasus sehr stark reduziert durch den Zusammenfall von Dativ und Akkusativ, so dass eine Kasusunterscheidung im Singular oder Plural nur durch das Hinzutreten von Artikeln, Pronomina, etc. möglich ist. Außerdem fällt der Genitiv in der mundartlichen Rede weg und wird stattdessen durch Umschreibungen mit Possessivpronomina oder Präpositionen ersetzt.

*''meiner Mutter ihr Haus; das Ende von der Leiter; das Rücklicht vom Fahrrad''

Der Genitiv ist lediglich in Zusammensetzungen [''Nachbarskinder; Hundshütte''] und zur Bezeichnung familiärer Zusammengehörigkeit [''Schröders Max; die Töpfers Frieda''] belegt.

Die Stellung im Nebenton von Artikeln und Pronomen kann zu einer starken Reduktion führen. Die weite Verbreitung des n-Abfalls beim unbestimmten Artikel wiederholt sich ebenfalls bei den Pronomina 'mein', 'dein' und 'sein'. Der bestimmte Artikel kann in der Enklise auch den Anlautkonsonanten verlieren [''er hat'n Arm gebrochen; er will'n Ball haben''], für 'das' ist der Konsonantenverlust auch in nichtenklitischer Stellung üblich ['''s Geld stimmt''].

Die Wortstellung wirkt sich ebenfalls auf die Personalpronomen aus, so wird z.B. 'wir' bis auf den Osten und Süden des thüringischen Dialektraumes r-los realisiert, in betonter Stellung mit Längung des Auslautvokales, in unbetonter Stellung mit kurzen Vokal. Eine weitere Besonderheit ist der m-Anlaut des Wortes im gesamten thüringischen Dialektgebiet, entstanden aus der Enklise nach der Verb-Endung -en der 1. Pers. Pl. oder nach anderen Wörtern mit n-Auslaut. Die Assimilation von m wurde schließlich für den Anlaut verallgemeinert.

Die im Thüringischen ungebräuchlichen Indefinitpronomen 'jemand' und 'niemand' werden ersetzt durch die Formen von einer, eine, eins, im Hennebergischen auch wer [''es kommt eins; Ist denn wer draußen?''] und keins bzw. verstärkend kein einziger.

*''es war kein einziger da; Hat denn keins meine Brille gesehen?''

===Verbalflexion===
Typisch für die Verbflexion ist die Apokope des Endungs-e in den Formen der 1.Sg. Ind. Präs., der 2.Sg. Imp. und 1./3.Sg. Ind./Konj. Prät., welche im südwestlichen Teil des Dialektgebietes [West-, Zentral-, Südostthüringisch, Hennebergisch, Itzgründisch] ständig anzutreffen ist, jedoch nach Tonbandaufnahmen auch in den anderen Sprachräumen, insbesondere nach dem Imperativ oder einem dem Verb folgenden Personalpronomen bzw. bei vokalisch auslautendem Verbstamm, vorkommt. In den nördlichen Sprachräumen ist es hingegen üblich, in der 1./3. Pers. Sg. Prät. vieler Verben ein e anzufügen, was als Angleichung an die schwache Verbalflexion aufgefasst wird. Der n-Abfall im Infinitiv ist nahezu im gesamten Dialektgebiet zu finden, andere Konjugationsformen sind nur im Hennebergischen betroffen, wo lediglich vokalisch auslautende Verbstämme und mit vorhergehendem r oder l gebietsweise nicht davon involviert sind. Das Itzgründische vokalisiert die Endung -en nach Nasalen zu -a, das Südostthüringische zu -e. Zu völliger Endungslosigkeit des Infinitivs führte die Apokope im West-, westlichen Zentralthüringischen, Hennebergischen, Itzgründischen und im Südzipfel des Südostthüringischen. Vom n-Abfall verschont bleibt hingegen der aus dem Gerundium entstandene Infinitiv nach 'zu'.

===Syntax===
Eine Besonderheit in der thüringischen Satzgestaltung sind Inversionen, welche auftreten, wenn der Infinitiv mit Modalverben der sinnlichen Wahrnehmung [z.B. hören, sehen, etc.] oder mit heißen, helfen und lassen verbunden ist. Liegt eine trennbare verbale Zusammensetzung vor, tritt das Hilfsverb zwischen die Glieder der Zusammensetzung [''er hat es nicht hineintun dürfen'']. Im Thüringischen werden häufig Hauptsätze verwendet anstatt einer differenzierenden Unterordnung durch Nebensätze [''er kann nicht kommen, er ist krank''], Satzverknüpfungen mit den Konstruktionen 'um zu' oder 'ohne zu' sowie Partizipialsätze fehlen gänzlich.

Außerdem ist es nicht ungewöhnlich, dass Satzglieder - teils zur Hervorhebung - zu Nebensätzen umgeformt werden [''und wie das Gewitter vorbei war, da schien die Sonne wieder'']. Als weiteres Mittel der Hervorhebung kann die Voranstellung eines Satzgliedes [Topikalisierung] dienen, welches durch ein Pronomen oder Adverb wieder aufgenommen wird [''mein Mann, der ist die ganze Woche nicht zu Hause'']. Diese Voranstellung wird häufig zu einem vollständigen, mit 'was' eingeleiteten Nebensatz erweitert.

*''was die älteste Tochter ist, die hat den Dialekt noch so ein bisschen''

==Thüringische Dialektliteratur==
Es gibt zwei ästhetische Verfahren des Einsatzes von Dialekt:
*Zum einen den Parallelismus, bei dem 'Textbedeutung' und 'Mundartbedeutung' übereinstimmen. Ein geläufiges Beispiel dafür wäre die Verwendung von Dialekt als 'Bauernsprache' in einem Stück über das bäuerliche Leben.
*Das andere Verfahren bezeichnet man als Abweichung, bezogen auf die Diskrepanz zwischen 'Textbedeutung' und 'Mundartbedeutung', die beispielsweise entstehen kann, wenn ein philosophisches Gedicht in Mundart geschrieben wird. Eine weitere Abweichung ist in dem Fall durch die Themenwahl gegeben, weil sie gegen die [teilweise geforderten] Mundartstereotypen verstößt und neue Bedeutung aufbauen kann.

===Epik und Lyrik===
Den Großteil thüringischer Dialektliteratur stellt die Epik dar , wobei Kurzformen [humoristische Geschichten, Anekdoten] vorherrschend sind. Thematisch wird ein breites Spektrum behandelt, welches nicht nur Schilderungen des ländlichen Lebens, der damaligen Zustände und Feste einschließt, sondern auch Darstellungen des Schulalltags, historisch-politische Ereignisse, Sagen und "Sprachwissenschaftliches" zur thüringischen Mundart [u.a. Aussprachehinweise, Ortsnamen].

Am zweithäufigsten findet sich in der thüringischen Dialektliteratur Lyrik, welche charakterisiert wird durch Form und Inhalt der alten Mundartliteratur. Fast ausnahmslos schildern die Gedichte [und häufig auch Kinderlieder] Szenen aus dem harmonisch-idyllischen Land- und Alltagsleben von Bewohnern der ländlichen Gegend. Ebenfalls sehr häufig sind humoristische Gedichte, die Bezug nehmen auf Besonderheiten der thüringischen Mundart, zumeist verfasst von Autoren mit sprachwissenschaftlichem Hintergrund [am produktivsten in dieser Kategorie waren Walther Tröge und August Ludwig].

===Beispiele dialektaler Dichtung===
"Erlkönig"

's is emal e Vater mit sein Jong iber Land geritten un erscht in d'r Nacht bei e Mordsturm widder
heem gekomm. M'r muß sich nur verwunnere, wie e Vater kann so unverstännig sei un mit e Kinne in
so eener Dunkelheet un bei so e Heidenwetter eene Reese ongernehme. Der is je Prigeln wert! Un
noch drzu off d'n Pfere! Wie leichte kann da nich e Unglück passiere! er konnte je sein Jong
drheeme lasse.
Wie se so off d'n Wege warn, da wurde der Jonge off eemal unleid'g, weil 'r sich vor'n Erlkönig
färchte. Wer nur den Kinne solch verflickschtes, dommes Zeig muß in Kopp gesetzt ha! Das kömmt
drvon, wenn de Kinnermädchen so leichtsinnig sin un de kleen Kinner mit e Popanz ferchtnig
machen! Uns is so gegang mit d'n Schlotfeger: vor den sin m'r ausgerissen wie Schafleder - aber
von e Erlkönig wußt m'r nischt. Das muß erscht eene neie Mode sei!
Dr Vater hatte seine Not mit d'n Jong un wollt 'n begitge un sa'te for'n: 's wär je nischt, 's
wär nur Nebel! - Uber sei Reden half 'n nischt: d'r Jonge wollte och etze d'n Erlkönig hire
pappere! Er muß getreemt ha - annersch kann ich m'rsch nich denke.
Sei Vater sa'te:d'r Wind wärsch - aber e blieb dabei un wollte och Erlkönigen seine Mächen gesihn
ha. Er hatte de Beeme an d'r Schoffee drvor angesihn, dr Vater merkte 's wohl.
Wie 'r aber immer un ängstlicher wurde un endlich schrie: erlkönig hätten angepackt un hätte 'n
etze eene droff gegeb'n - da wurd's sein Vater eklig ze Mute: er ritt zu, was Pferd nur loofe
wollte, un wie 'r heemkam, war d'r Jonge tot.
Siehste, das hat 'r von den dämlichen Fercht'gmachen gehatt!

"Änne Värschröft"

[...]
unser Volk kann Spaß verstieh,
kann ooch schüne sönge,
aber eens, das wärscht de nie
nech in Thüring' fönge:
hartes "p" un hartes "t"
kannst de nech begrüße,
weech ös alles eenerlee,
ooch de ruhen Klüße;
"Leute" sötzen söcherlich
nech dahier off "Stühlen",
weil se nur off "Schdielen" sich
racht "gemiedlich fiehlen";
[...]

==Literatur==
*Bach, A.: Deutsche Mundartforschung. Ihre Wege, Ergebnisse und Aufgaben. Heidelberg 19502.
*Goossens, J.: Deutsche Dialektologie. Berlin/New York 1977.
*Ludwig, August: Quatschgenkuchen und Muskräppelchen. Heitere Geschichten in Thüringer Mundart. Leipzig 1956.
*Markey, T. L.: Prinzipien der Dialektologie. Einführung in die deutsche Dialektforschung. Mit einer ausführlichen Bibliographie. Großen-Linden 1977. [= Gießener Beiträge zur Sprachwissenschaft 8]
*Niebaum, H. + Macha, J.: Einführung in die Dialektologie des Deutschen.Tübingen 1999. [= Germanistische Arbeithefte 37]
*Putschke, W.: Ostmitteldeutsche Dialektologie. In: L. E. Schmitt: Germanische Dialektologie. Festschrift für W. Mitzka zum 80.Geburtstag. Bd.1. Wiesbaden 1968. S. 105-154.
*Rosenkranz, H.: Der thüringische Sprachraum. Untersuchungen zur dialektgeographischen Struktur und zur Sprachgeschichte Thüringens. Halle 1964. [=Mitteldeutsche Studien 26]
*Spangenberg, K.: Laut- und Formeninventar thüringischer Dialekte. Beiband zum Thüringischen Wörterbuch. Berlin 1993.
*Sommer, Anton. Thüringer Klänge. Gedichte und Erzählungen in echt Thüringer Mundart. Ausgewählt und neu herausgegeben von Waldemar Döpel. Jena 1938.
*Weisgerber, B.: Mundart, Umgangssprache, Standard. In: H. Goebl + P. H. Nelde et al.: Kontaktlinguistik. Ein internationales Handbuch zeitgenössischer Forschung. Bd. 1. Berlin/New York 1996. S. 258-271.
*Etzold, Regina + Löber, Karin: Thüringisch, Thüringer, Thüringen: ein Lesebuch. Erfurt 1991.
*Keil, Heinz: Der Thüringer. Bd. 1: Mein Studium der Mundart. Bd. 2: Geschichte und Mundart. Bad Langensalza 1994.
*Knoop, Ulrich: Wörterbuch deutscher Dialekte. Eine Sammlung aus zehn Dialektgebieten im Einzelvergleich, in Sprichwörtern und Redewendungen. Unter Mitarbeit von Michael Mühlenhorst. München 2001.
*Kürsten, Otto + Kramer, Walther: Von der Mundart zur Hochsprache. Sprachkunde und Sprachlehre für Thüringer und Sachsen. Erfurt 1935.
*Lösch, Wolfgang + Petzold, Rainer et al.: Kleines Thüringer Wörterbuch. Leipzig 1995. [=Reclam-Bibliothek Bd. 1521]
*Spangenberg, Karl: Kleines Thüringisches Wörterbuch. Rudolstadt/Jena 1994.

[[Category:De]]
[[Category:Single language]]

Kolyma-Jukagirisch

2021-01-04T08:15:04Z

Kirk Miller: comment-out useless infobox

Das '''Kolyma-Jukagirische''' ist eine der beiden noch existierenden [[Jukagirische Sprachen|jukagirischen Sprachen]]. Sie wird von ca. 50 Sprechern (Stand 1992) in Jakutien (Rußland) gesprochen.

=Genealogie=
Das Jukagirische mit seinen beiden Vertretern, dem Kolyma-(bzw. Süd-) und dem Tundra-(bzw. Nord-)Jukagirischen gilt traditionell als isolierte Familie. Es gibt jedoch Ansätze, es etablierten Gruppen zuzuordnen, insbesondere den uralischen Sprachen. Näheres hierzu siehe [[Jukagirische Sprachen]]. 
Die beiden jukagirischen Sprachen wurden zumeist als Dialekte klassifiziert; angesichts der großen Unterschiede und der gegenseitigen Unverständlichkeit werden sie jedoch zunehmend als separate Sprachen angesehen.

=Soziolinguistische Situation=
'''Stand 1987'''

Das Kolyma-Jukagirische wird von 50 Sprechern in vier Siedlungen am Oberlauf der Kolyma (Rußland) gesprochen; mit 29 hat Nelemnoje (Jakutien) die größte Anzahl an Sprechern, weitere Sprecher finden sich in Syrjanka (Jakutien) sowie Sejmtschan und Balygytschan (Region Magadan).

Alle Einwohner Nelemnojes sprechen Russisch und viele ebenfalls Jakutisch; 133 (54%) von ihnen sind zwar Jukagiren, von diesen sprechen jedoch nur 29 Jukagirisch, und nur 9 nennen es als erste Sprache. Die größten Sprachkenntnisse gibt es in der alten Generation; das Durchschnittsalter der nelemnojer Jukagirischsprecher liegt bei 63 Jahren. Seit 1985 wird Jukagirisch zwar an der Schule gelehrt, aber der Erfolg scheint gering.

=Phonologie=
==Konsonanten==

{| {{Prettytable}}
! rowspan="2" |  
! colspan="2" style="background-color:#FFDEAD" | [[bilabial]]
! colspan="2" style="background-color:#FFDEAD" | [[dental]]
! colspan="2" style="background-color:#FFDEAD" | palatalo- alveolar
! colspan="2" style="background-color:#FFDEAD" | [[palatal]]
! colspan="2" style="background-color:#FFDEAD" | [[velar]]
! colspan="2" style="background-color:#FFDEAD" | [[uvular]]
|- style="text-align:center"
| style="width:1.7em; background-color:#FFDEAD" | [[Stimmlosigkeit|stl.]]
| style="width:1.7em; background-color:#FFDEAD; text-align:center" | [[Stimmhaftigkeit|sth.]]
| style="width:1.7em; background-color:#FFDEAD; text-align:center" | stl.
| style="width:1.7em; background-color:#FFDEAD; text-align:center" | sth.
| style="width:1.7em; background-color:#FFDEAD; text-align:center" | stl.
| style="width:1.7em; background-color:#FFDEAD; text-align:center" | sth.
| style="width:1.7em; background-color:#FFDEAD; text-align:center" | stl.
| style="width:1.7em; background-color:#FFDEAD; text-align:center" | sth.
| style="width:1.7em; background-color:#FFDEAD; text-align:center" | stl.
| style="width:1.7em; background-color:#FFDEAD; text-align:center" | sth.
| style="width:1.7em; background-color:#FFDEAD; text-align:center" | stl.
| style="width:1.7em; background-color:#FFDEAD; text-align:center" | sth.
|-
! style="background-color:#FFDEAD; text-align:left" | [[Plosiv]]e
| style="text-align:center" | {{IPA-Text|p}}
|  
| style="text-align:center" | {{IPA-Text|t}}
| style="text-align:center" | {{IPA-Text|d}}
|  
|  
|  
|  
| style="text-align:center" | {{IPA-Text|k}}
| style="text-align:center" | {{IPA-Text|g}}
| style="text-align:center" | {{IPA-Text|q}}
|  
|-
! style="background-color:#FFDEAD; text-align:left" | [[Affrikate]]n
|  
|  
|  
|  
|  
|  
| style="text-align:center" | {{IPA-Text|cç}}
| style="text-align:center" | {{IPA-Text|ɟʝ}}
|  
|  
|  
|  
|-
! style="background-color:#FFDEAD; text-align:left" | [[Frikativ]]e
|  
|  
|  
|  
| style="text-align:center" | {{IPA-Text|ɕ}}
| style="text-align:center" | {{IPA-Text|ʑ}}
|  
|  
|  
|  
|  
| style="text-align:center" | {{IPA-Text|ʁ}}
|-
! style="background-color:#FFDEAD; text-align:left" | [[Nasal (Phonetik)|Nasal]]e
|  
| style="text-align:center" | {{IPA-Text|m}}
|  
| style="text-align:center" | {{IPA-Text|n}}
|  
|  
|  
| style="text-align:center" | {{IPA-Text|ɲ}}
|  
| style="text-align:center" | {{IPA-Text|ŋ}}
|  
|  
|-
! style="background-color:#FFDEAD; text-align:left" | [[Vibrant]]en
|  
|  
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| style="text-align:center" | {{IPA-Text|r}}
|  
|  
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|  
|  
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|-
! style="background-color:#FFDEAD; text-align:left" | laterale Approximanten
|  
|  
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| style="text-align:center" | {{IPA-Text|l}}
|  
|  
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| style="text-align:center" | {{IPA-Text|ʎ}}
|  
|  
|  
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|-
! style="background-color:#FFDEAD; text-align:left" | [[Approximant]]en
|  
| style="text-align:center" | {{IPA-Text|w}}
|  
|  
|  
|  
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| style="text-align:center" | {{IPA-Text|j}}
|  
|  
|  
|  
|}

==Vokale==

{| {{Prettytable}}
| rowspan="2" |  
! colspan="2" style="background-color:#FFDEAD" | vorne
! colspan="2" style="background-color:#FFDEAD" | zentral
! colspan="2" style="background-color:#FFDEAD" | hinten
|- style="text-align:center"
| style="width:2em; background-color:#FFDEAD" | [[Rundung (Phonetik)|ung.]]
| style="width:2em; background-color:#FFDEAD" | [[Rundung (Phonetik)|ger.]]
| style="width:2em; background-color:#FFDEAD" | ung.
| style="width:2em; background-color:#FFDEAD" | ger.
| style="width:2em; background-color:#FFDEAD" | ung.
| style="width:2em; background-color:#FFDEAD" | ger.
|-
! style="background-color:#FFDEAD; text-align:left" | geschlossen
| style="text-align:center" | {{IPA-Text|i}}
|  
|  
|  
|  
| style="text-align:center" | {{IPA-Text|u}}
|-
! style="background-color:#FFDEAD; text-align:left" | halbgeschlossen
| style="text-align:center" | {{IPA-Text|e}}
| style="text-align:center" | {{IPA-Text|ø}}
|  
|  
|  
| style="text-align:center" | {{IPA-Text|o}}
|-
! style="background-color:#FFDEAD; text-align:left" | offen
|  
|  
| style="text-align:center" | {{IPA-Text|a}}
|  
|  
|  
|}

Alle Vokale kommen sowohl kurz als auch lang vor; die langen Vokale /e/, /o/ und /ø/ werden auch als fallende Diphtonge [ie], [uo] und [uø] gesprochen. 
Es existiert eine rudimentäre Vokalharmonie; die palatale Vokalharmonie kontrastiert ''i, e, ø'' und ''u'' mit ''a'' und ''o'', die labiale führt zur Alternation von ''e'' und ''o''.

==Silbenstruktur==
Die Silbenstruktur ist einfach; Silben haben die Struktur ''KV'' oder ''KVK'', am Wortanfang auch ''V'' und ''VK''. Stimmhafte Obstruenten am Wortanfang sind nicht möglich, am Silbenende werden sie neutralisiert (zu stimmhaften Obstruenten oder Sonoranten), zudem werden sie silbenanlautend nach (stimmlosen) Obstruenten assimiliert. 
Mit zwei Strategien wird bei der Affigierung die Bildung von unzulässigen Silbenstrukturen verhindert: 1) Suffixe können in der Form ''K'' oder ''Ke'' auftreten, 2) es wird /u/ oder /l/ eingefügt.

=Morphologie=
Die Morphologie des Jukagirischen ist hauptsächlich agglutinierend und wird überwiegend durch Suffixe realisiert. Es gibt fünf Präfixe, die jedoch eine losere Bindung zum Stamm haben.

Die flektierbaren Wortarten im Jukagirischen sind Nomen und Verben; adjektivische Bedeutungen werden durch Verben ausgedrückt. Die zwei Wortarten lassen sich aufgrund ihrer Morphologie klar unterscheiden, es existieren jedoch zahlreiche Möglichkeiten, durch Derivation die Wortart zu wechseln.

==Nomen==
Nomen werden nach Numerus, Kasus und Possession (nur 3. Person) flektiert. Die Reihenfolge der Suffixe ist ''Plural-Possession-Kasus''.

===Plural===
Der Pluralmarker ist ''-p(ul)'' bzw. ''-pe'' (die Verteilung der Allomorphe ist phonologisch bedingt). Bei zusätzlicher Possessiv-Markierung kann der Pluralmarker sich auf Possessor und/oder Possessum beziehen.

===Possession===
Der Possessivmarker ist ''-gi'' im Nominativ und ''-d(e)'' in allen anderen Kasus. Er bezieht sich auf eine NP, die entweder Attribut des Nomens ist oder außerhalb der NP steht, aber nicht das Subjekt sein darf.

===Kasus===
Es werden 9 [[Kasus]] unterschieden, und zwar Nominativ, Prädikativ, Akkusativ, Instrumental, Dativ, Lokativ, Ablativ, Prolativ und Komitativ.

Die Kasussuffixe sind folgende:
{| {{Prettytable}}
! Kasus !! Suffix
|-
| Nominativ || -
|-
| Prädikativ || -lek
|-
| Akkusativ || -gele
|-
| Instrumental || -le
|-
| Dativ || -ŋin
|-
| Lokativ || -ge
|-
| Ablativ || -get
|-
| Prolativ || -gen
|-
| Komitativ || -n'e
|-
|}
Zur Verwendung der Kasus siehe unter ''Syntax''.

===Derivation===
====Proprietiv====
Mit dem Suffix ''-n'(e)'' wird von Nomen ein Verb mit der Bedeutung ''X besitzen'' abgeleitet.
{|
|(1) ||''irk-i-n''||''ado:-'''n'e'''-l'el-ŋi''
|-
| ||ein-0-ATTR||Sohn-PROPR-INFR-INTR.3PL
|-
| ||colspan=9|Sie hatten einen Sohn.
|}

====Proprietiv-Kausativ/Inchoativ====
Das Suffix ''-d(e)'' (phonologisch bedingte Allomorphe ''-te'' und ''-š'') ist das kausative bzw. inchoative Gegenstück zum Proprietivsuffix mit der Bedeutung ''verursachen, daß jemand X hat'' (Bsp. (2)) bzw. ''X bekommen'' (Bsp. (3)).
{|
|(2) ||''n'ied'e-te-j''||''qodo''||''el-noj-n'el''||''šoromo''||''noj-'''te'''-č-u-l''
|-
| ||erzählen-FUT-INTR.3SG||wie||NEG-Bein-PROPR-AN||Person||Bein-PROPR.KAUS-iter-0-AN
|-
| ||colspan=9|Er wird erzählen, wie er beinlose Menschen mit Beinen versieht.
|}

{|
|(3)||''tamun-ge''||''taŋ''||''paj''||''nodo-pugelbie-'''de'''-j''
|-
| ||jener-LOK||jene||Frau||Vogel-Haar-PROPR.INCH-INTR.3SG
|-
| ||colspan=9|Dann bekam jene Frau Federn.
|}

==Verben==
Finite Verben werden im Jukagirischen nach [[Tempus]], [[Aspekt]], [[Modus]], [[Kongruenz]] (Person-Numerus-Kongruenz mit A/S) und [[Fokus]] flektiert, wobei zwei Klassen, nämlich [[intransitiv]] und [[transitiv]], unterschieden werden. Außerdem existiert eine Vielzahl an infiniten Formen, und zwar Verbalnomen sowie Konverben (mit [[Referenzwechsel]]-Markierung).

===Tempus, Aspekt, Modus===
Die wichtigste Kategorie ist hier der Aspekt. Markiert werden können [[Imperfektiv]], [[Habitualis]], [[Ingressiv]] und [[Resultativ]]. In der Kategorie Tempus wird nur zwischen [[Futur]] und Nicht-Futur unterschieden, Vergangenheit wird oft mit dem Inferentialmarker ausgedrückt. Als Modusformen stehen [[Inferential]], [[Prospektiv]] und [[Irrealis]] zur Verfügung.

===Fokus===
Das Jukagirische verfügt über ein Fokussystem, das es erlaubt, P- und S-Argumente zu fokussieren. Dazu wird die entsprechende Verbform verwendet und das fokussierte Argument in den Prädikativ gesetzt. 
Zur morphologischen Realisierung siehe unter Kongruenz

===Kongruenz===
Die finiten Verben kongruieren mit dem Subjekt in Person (1., 2., 3.) und Numerus (Singular, Plural). Morphologisch interagiert die Kongruenz stark mit der Markierung von Transitivität und Fokus, daher seien diese drei Kategorien zusammen an den Verben ''modo-'' (''sitzen'') und ''a:-'' (''machen'') veranschaulicht:
{| {{Prettytable}}
! !! colspan="2"| intransitiv !! colspan="2"| transitiv
|-
! !! normal !! S-Fokus !! normal !! P-Fokus
|-
| 1SG || modo-je || modo-l || a: || a:-me
|-
| 2SG || modo-je-k || modo-l || a:-mek || a:-me
|-
| 3SG || modo-j || modo-l || a:-m || a:-me-le
|-
| 1PL || modo-je-jl'i || modo-l || a:-j || a:-l
|-
| 2PL || modo-je-met || modo-l || a:-met || a:-met
|-
| 3PL || modo-ŋi || modo-ŋi-l || a:-ŋa: || a:-ŋi-le
|-
|}

===Valenzerweiternde Derivationen===
Bei den valenzerweiternden Derivationen wird der Argumentstruktur des Verbs eine Argumentstelle hinzugefügt; wird die Valenz eines intransitiven Verbs erhöht, so wird es fortan mit den Suffixen für transitive Verben flektiert.

====Kausativ====
Der reguläre [[Kausativ]] wird mit dem Suffix ''-š'' gebildet. Er ist auf intransitive und transitive Verben anwendbar und fügt einen Kausator als neues Subjekt hinzu. Das zuvor einzige Argument eines intransitiven Verbes erscheint dann als direktes Objekt (siehe (4)), bei transitiven Verben erschient das Kausatum als indirektes Objekt im Dativ (wie in (6)), das Patiens bleibt direktes Objekt (siehe (5)).

{|
|(4) ||''ninge-j''||''šoromo-k''||''ahurpe-'''š'''-me''.
|-
| ||viele-ATTR||Person-PRÄD||leiden-KAUS-1SG:PF
|-
| ||colspan=9|Ich fügte vielen Menschen Leid zu.
|}

{|
|(5) ||''los'il-ek''||''čine-'''š'''-nu-l'el-ŋile''
|-
| ||Feuerholz-PRÄD||hacken-KAUS-IPFV-INFR-3PL:PF
|-
| ||colspan=9|Man ließ (sie) Feuerholz hacken.
|}

{|
|(6) ||''tamun-ŋin''||''eškeri-'''š'''-l'el-ŋa:
|-
| ||jener-DAT||angreifen-KAUS-INFR-TR.3PL
|-
| ||colspan=9|Sie befahlen ihm anzugreifen.
|}

====Zweiter Kausativ====
Das Suffix ''-čil'e'' kann an bereits mit ''-š'' kausativierte Verben angefügt werden. Die Bedeutung ist dann ein indirekteres Verursachen (z.B. ''juø'' - sehen, ''juø-š'' - zeigen, ''juø-š-čil'e'' - (aus Versehen) sehen lassen). Bei ursprünglich intransitiven Verben kann optional Valenzerweiterung (Hinzufügen eines weiteren Kausators wie in Bsp. (8)) erfolgen.
{|
|(7) ||''čaqe-lek''||''al'a:-'''š'''-mele''
|-
| ||gefrorener.Fisch-PRÄD||tauen(INTR)-KAUS-3SG.PF
|-
| ||colspan=9|Er taute gefrorenen Fisch auf.
|}

{|
|(8) ||''met''||''taŋ''||''šoromo-ŋin''||''čaqe-lek''||''al'a:-'''š-čil'e'''-me''
|-
| ||ich||jene||Person-DAT||gefrorener.Fisch-PRÄD||tauen(INTR)-KAUS-KAUS-1SG.PF
|-
| ||colspan=9|Ich bat den Mann, gefrorenen Fisch aufzutauen.
|}

====Applikativ====
Der [[Applikativ]] wird mittels der Suffixe ''-re'' oder ''-ri:'' gebildet und fügt der Argumentstruktur ein direktes Objekt hinzu. Er ist auf wenige Verben beschränkt, die Bedeutung ist vom jeweiligen Verb abhängig und kann nicht anderweitig erschlossen werden.

{|
|(9) ||''tet-kele''||''pietur-die-gele''||''jaqte-'''ri:'''-m''||''irk-in''||''markil' ''
|-
| ||du-AKK||P.-DIM-AKK||singen-APPL-TR.3SG||eins-ATTR||Mädchen
|-
| ||colspan=9|Ein Mädchen sang über dich und Peter
|}

{|
|(10) ||''qan'il''||''met-kele''||''kimda:n'e-'''ri:'''-l'el-u-m''
|-
| ||Adler||ich-AKK||lügen-APPL-INFR-0-TR.3SG
|-
| ||colspan=9|Der Adler scheint mich belogen zu haben.
|}

===Valenzvermindernde Derivationen===
Bei den valenzvermindernden Derivationen wird in der Argumentstruktur des Verbs eine Argumentstelle getilgt; hat das derivierte Verb nur noch ein Argument, werden die Marker für intransitive Verben verwendet.

====Deobjektiv====
Durch den Deobjektiv, der mit den Suffixen ''-d'(e)'', ''-že'' und ''-de'' (lexikalisch bedingte [[Allomorphie]]) gebildet wird, wird das direkte Objekt eines transitiven Verbs getilgt. Die Bedeutung variiert und reicht von Situationen, in denen es kein Patiens gibt (wie in (11)), über Antipassiv bis zu Medium/Reflexiv (wie in (12)).

{|
|(11) ||''touke''||''a:j''||''oj-'''d' '''-a:-j''
|-
| ||Hund||wieder||anbellen-DEOBJ-INGR-INTR:3SG
|-
| ||colspan=9|Der Hund begann wieder zu bellen.
|}

{|
|(12) ||''ta:t''||''tude''||''šøštok-ke''||''n'igi-'''že'''-t||''modo-j''
|-
| ||also||sein||Posten-LOK||wärmen-DEOBJ-SS.IPFV||sitzen-INTR:3SG
|-
| ||colspan=9|Also saß er auf seinem Posten und wärmte sich.
|}

====Resultativ====
Der [[Resultativ]] wird mit dem Suffix ''-o:'' (welches vom Kopulaverb ''o:-'' abeleitet ist) gebildet. Er bezeichnet den Zustand, der aus der Ausführung des durch das Verb bezeichneten Ereignisses resultiert. Er tritt bei intransitiven Verben (keine Valenzveränderung) und transitiven Verben (Tilgung des Agens) auf, bezieht sich also auf S (Bsp. (13)) oder P (Bsp. (14)).

{|
|(13) ||''amd-'''o:'''-t''||''qodo:-j''
|-
| ||sterben-RES-SS.IPFV||liegen-INTR:3SG
|-
| ||colspan=9|Er lag tot da.
|}

{|
|(14) ||''unuŋ''||''šaide''||''tob-'''o:'''-j''
|-
| ||Fluß||quer.über||schließen-RES-INTR:3SG
|-
| ||colspan=9|Der Fluß ist versperrt.
|}

====Reflexiv====
[[Reflexiv]]ierung wird durch das Präfix ''met-'' ausgedrückt.

{|
|(15) ||''met''||''joul'e-t''||'''''met'''-emtedej-s'e''
|-
| ||ich||krank.sein-SS.IPFV||REFL-behandeln-INTR:1SG
|-
| ||colspan=9|Ich bin krank und behandele mich selbst.
|}

====Reziprok====
[[Reziprok]] wird mit dem Präfix ''n'e-'' gebildet, dabei wird das direkte Objekt (siehe (16)) oder das indirekte (siehe (17)) getilgt. Zusätzlich kann wie in (19) ein Reziprokpronomen verwendet werden. Bei ursprünglich ditransitiven Verben tritt in der Regel die transitive Verbflexion auf, es kann aber auch die intransitive vorkommen. 
Der Reziprokmarker hat sich vermutlich erst kürzlich aus einem freien Element gebildet, vgl. die Homonymie mit Komitativsuffix und Reziprokpronomen.

{|
|(16) ||''odu-pe''||''kukujerd'i-pe-n'e''||'''''n'e'''-lejtej-ŋi''
|-
| ||Jukagire-PL||Ewene-PL-KOM||REZP-treffen-SS.PFV||REZP-lernen-INTR:3PL
|-
| ||colspan=9|Jukagiren und Ewenen trafen einander und lernten sich kennen.
|}

{|
|(17) ||''legul-ek''||'''''n'e'''-kes'i-l''
|-
| ||Essen||REZP-bringen-1PL.PF
|-
| ||colspan=9|Wir brachten einander Essen.
|}

{|
|(18) ||''mit''||''nier-pe''||'''''n'e'''-kes'i-ji:l'i''
|-
| ||unsere||Kleider-PL||REZP-bringen-INTR:1PL
|-
| ||colspan=9|Wir brachten uns unsere Kleider.
|}

{|
|(19) ||''tittel''||'''''n'e'''-laŋi''||'''''n'e'''-mon-ŋi'' ...
|-
| ||sie||einander-DIR||REZP-sagen-INTR:3PL
|-
| ||colspan=9|Sie sagten zueinander: ...
|}

=Syntax=
==Argumentkodierung==
Die Kernargumente eines Satzes werden im Jukagirischen nach einem Akkusativmuster markiert, wobei das Patiens in verschiedenen Kasus erscheinen kann (s.u.). Außerdem können Patiens und Argument eines intransitiven Verbs fokussiert werden und erscheinen dann im Prädikativ. Das indirekte Objekt steht im Dativ.

===Differentielle Objektmarkierung===
Das direkte Objekt kann, von der Fokuskonstruktion abgesehen, in vier verschieden Kasus erscheinen:
*Nominativ: Wenn das Subjekt 1. oder 2. Person ist, und das Objekt 3.
*Pronominaler Akkusativ: Wenn sowohl Subjekt als auch Objekt 1. oder 2. Person sind.
*Akkusativ: Wenn das Objekt definit ist.
*Instumental: Wenn das Objekt indefinit ist.

=Abkürzungen=
{|
|A||[[Agens]]-[[Argument]] im transitiven Satz
|-
|AKK||[[Akkusativ]]
|-
|AN||Aktionsnomen
|-
|APPL||[[Applikativ]]
|-
|ATTR||Attributivform
|-
|DAT||[[Dativ]]
|-
|DETR||[[Detransitiv]]
|-
|DIM||[[Diminutiv]]
|-
|FUT||[[Futur]]
|-
|INFR||[[Inferential]]
|-
|INGR||[[Ingressiv]]
|-
|INSTR||[[Instrumental]]
|-
|INTR||[[Intransitiv]]
|-
|IPFV||[[Imperfektiv]]
|-
|KAUS||[[Kausativ]]
|-
|KOM||[[Komitativ]]
|-
|LOK||[[Lokativ]]
|-
|PF||[[Fokus|P-Fokus]]
|-
|P||[[Patiens]]-[[Argument]] im transitiven Satz
|-
|PL||[[Plural]]
|-
|PRÄD||[[Prädikativ]]
|-
|PROPR||[[Proprietiv]]
|-
|RES||[[Resultativ]]
|-
|REZP||[[Reziprok]]
|-
|S||[[Subjekt]] eines intransitiven Satzes
|-
|SF||[[Fokus|S-Fokus]]
|-
|SS||Selbes Subjekt
|-
|TR||[[Transitiv]]
|}

=Literatur=
*Maslova, Elena: ''A Grammar of Kolyma Yukaghir'', Mouton de Gruyter, Berlin, 2003
*Maslova, Elena: ''Reciprocals in Yukaghir'', erscheint in: Vladimir P. Nedjalkov (Hrsg.): ''Typologie of reciprocal Constructions''. [http://www.stanford.edu/~emaslova/Publications/Reciprocal.pdf Aufsatz als PDF]

=Links=
*[http://ling.uni-konstanz.de/pages/home/nikolaeva/documentation/index.html Online-Dokumentation des Kolyma-Jukagirischen (Irina Nikolaeva)]

[[Category:De]]
[[Category:Single language]]
[[Category:Yukaghir]]

Kaili

2021-01-04T08:11:15Z

Kirk Miller:

'''Kaili''' (ISO 639-3: lew) ist ein [[Dialektkontinuum]] in der Gruppe der Kaili-Pamona-Sprachen und wird in Zentral-[[Sulawesi]] ([[Indonesien]]) gesprochen. In seiner Gesamtheit ist Kaili eine der größten Mittelsulawesisprachen.

Im Folgenden wird der Hauptdialekt '''Ledo''', wie er im Bezirk (Kabupaten) Donggala und der Provinzhauptstadt Palu verwendet wird, beschrieben.

==Sprachgenealogie==
===Klassifikation===
Die Kaili-Pamona-Sprachen (oder ''westliche [[Torajas|Toraja]]-Sprachen'') gehören zu den Sulawesisprachen, einem Zweig der [[West Malayo-Polynesisch]]en Sprachen in der [[Austronesische Sprachen|austronesischen Sprachfamilie]].

===Geschichte===
Über die frühe [[Sprachgeschichte]] des Kaili ist nicht sehr viel bekannt, da es keine schriftlichen Zeugnisse aus vorkolonialer Zeit gibt.

==Geografische Verteilung==
Kaili wird fast ausschließlich in der Provinz Sulawesi Tengah (Zentral-Sulawesi, [[Indonesien]]) gesprochen. Es gibt aber nennenswerte Gruppen von vorübergehend oder dauerhaft abgewanderten Kaili-Sprechern auf Java in den Städten in Jakarta und Yogyakarta.

===Offizieller Status===
Kaili ist nirgendwo [[Amtssprache]]. Es ist "Regionalsprache" ohne offiziellen Status in der [[Indonesien|Republik Indonesien]].

===Dialekte und Soziolekte===
Es gibt 13 [[Dialekt]]e im Kaili: Rao, Tajio (od. Ajio), Kori, Doi, Unde (od. Ndepu, Undepu), Ledo (od. Palu), Da’a, Inde, Ija, Edo, Ado, Ava, Tara. Nicht alle Dialekte sind untereinander gut verstehbar. Die Namen der Dialekte sind normalerweise das jeweilige [[Schibboleth]] mit der Bedeutung ‘nein, nicht’.
Hauptdialekt und Varietät mit dem höchsten Prestige ist Ledo, das vor allem in der Provinzhauptstadt Palu und dem Umland gesprochen wird; Ledo dient(e) darüber hinaus in weiten Teilen Mittelsulawesis sowie sporadisch in Küstenbereichen und kleinen Inseln des Golfs von Tomini als [[Lingua franca]].

===Sprecherzahlen===
Ledo: 128.000 (Ethnologue, 2006)
Kaili insgesamt: 334.000 (KASENG, 1978) / 290.000 (SNEDDON, 1983) / 233.500 (Ethnologue, 2006) 

1979 war ein Drittel der etwas über 1 Mio. Bewohner der Provinz Sulawesi Tengah [[Muttersprachler]] des Kaili. Heutzutage sind es eine Viertelmillion der über 2,5 Millionen Einwohner).
Beinahe alle Sprecher des Kaili sind mehrsprachig und sprechen zumindest noch [[Indonesische Sprache|Bahasa Indonesia]].

==Sprachsoziologie==
Die staatlichen Zeitungen und die großen Fernsehsender verwenden ausschließlich [[Indonesische Sprache|Bahasa Indonesia]]. Einige private Radiosender senden (zumindest zeitweise) auch auf Ledo. Regionale Verlage bringen vereinzelt Bücher in Kaili heraus, jedoch kaum oder keine Übersetzungen ins Kaili, sondern nur regionale Literatur. Regionale Zeitungen und die wenige nicht-mündliche Literatur sind überwiegend im Ledo-Dialekt. Nationale Fördermittel für derartige regionalsprachlichen Medien scheinen zwar vorhanden aber recht ungleichmäßig (zugunsten Javas und Sumatras) verteilt zu sein.
Die folkloristischen Elemente der oralen Tradition im Kaili (Liedgut, Märchen, Mythen, Dichtung) sind immer noch weitgehend bekannt, auch modernes Kulturschaffen findet teilweise (aber nachlassend) in Kaili statt.
Kaili ist an den allgemeinbildenden Schulen weder als Unterrischtssprache noch als [[Unterricht]]sgegenstand vorgesehen. Bemühungen einiger [[Linguist]]en und [[Pädagoge]]n, Kaili zumindest in der Mittelschule zum Unterrichtsfach zu machen, stoßen bei Verwaltung und Bevölkerung gleichermaßen auf Indifferenz und Desinteresse.

Die ''Universitas Tadulako'' in Palu führt zwar ein Kaili-Wort im Namen, hat aber als staatliche Institution ausschließlich Bahasa Indonesia als Amts- und Unterrichtssprache. Es gibt aber Abteilungen für Linguistik, für Literaturwissenschaft und für die Lehrerausbildung, die sich u.a. mit Kaili beschäftigen.

=== Linguistisches Ungleichgewicht ===
====Stadt – Land====
In den Großstädten wirkt sich die Transmigrasi-Politik Suhartos aus. Es gibt viele Menschen deren Muttersprache eine andere Regionalsprache ist. Gegenüber diesen wird Bahasa Indonesia verwendet. Oftmals entstehen so bi- bzw. trilinguale Familien, in denen dann stets Bahasa Indonesia oder [[Betawi]]/Jakarta-Indonesisch die „Verkehrssprache“ ist. Im tieferen Hinterland ist Kaili jedoch nach wie vor die Hauptsprache, oft auch die einzige Sprache. Hier gibt es überwiegend monolinguale Familien (Kaili) und nur in seltenen Fällen Mischfamilien, in denen hauptsächlich Bahasa Indonesia gesprochen wird.

====Generationenfrage====
Die sehr Alten (Kindheit bis 1930er Jahre) sind oft noch einsprachig in Kaili Die Generationen, die seit der Unabhängigkeit (1945) aufgewachsen sind, sind in der Regel zweisprachig (Bahasa Indonesia und Kaili), wobei sie im Elternhaus Kaili und in der Schule/im Beruf Bahasa Indonesia gelernt haben bzw. verwenden. Die jüngsten Generationen ([[Spracherwerb]] seit den 1980er Jahren) sind zumeist auch im Elternhaus schon mit Bahasa Indonesia als Erstsprache aufgewachsen und haben Kaili – wenn überhaupt – nur sporadisch gelernt (nur passive Kenntnisse), es gibt eine ganze Generation von [[Halbsprecher]]n, die weder in Kaili noch in Bahasa Indonesia eine lückenlose Kompetenz haben.

====Domänen====
In der Schule, im Berufsleben und im Umgang mit Behörden ist die Verwendung der Bahasa Indonesia Pflicht. Unter den Schülern (auch wenn sie alle Kaili sprechen) wird daher auch privat meist Bahasa Indonesia verwendet.
Im semiformellen und familiären Umfeld (auch z.B. beim Einkauf in den kleineren privaten Läden) wird Kaili verwendet, wenn alle Gesprächsteilnehmer Kaili verstehen und sprechen können. Außerhalb der Provinz Sulawesi Tengah wird Kaili allenfalls als eine Art [[Geheimsprache|Geheim]- oder [[Gruppensprache]] oder verwendet.

====Prestige====
Je nach Situation kann eine gute Kompetenz in Kaili (insbesondere „gepflegtem Ledo“) auch als ein positives Gut angesehen werden. Normalerweise wird aber eher Wert auf eine gute Beherrschung der Bahasa Indonesia gelegt, die in Schule und Beruf Erfolg verheißender ist. Kaili wird als Kulturgut empfunden, dessen alltäglicher Nutzwert gegen Null strebt, sobald man die Region verlässt.

===Bedrohungssituation===
Mit einer (noch) sechsstelligen Sprecherzahl scheint Kaili vordergründig nicht akut gefährdet zu sein. Die Entwicklung der letzten 60, insbesondere aber der letzten 20 Jahre lässt jedoch ahnen, dass die Sprache auf Dauer dem Druck der Bahasa Indonesia nicht gewachsen sein wird. Da Kaili seit Jahrhunderten eine wichtige [[Lingua franca]] in der Region ist und auch die Sprache der im Bezirk Donggala politisch wie ökonomisch dominierenden Bevölkerung, übt es seinerseits permanent Druck auf kleinere Sprachen der Region aus. Die Bedeutung des Kaili als [[Verkehrssprache]] lässt jedoch nach, in diese [[Domäne]] dringt Bahasa Indonesia geplant vor. Für die Situation des Kaili selbst gibt es noch keine detaillierten Untersuchungen, vgl. aber HIMMELMANN (in Vorb.) für die benachbarten [[Tolitoli-Tomini-Sprachen]], die von Regionalsprachen, darunter Kaili, „bedrängt“ werden.

==Phonetik und Phonologie==
Lautinventar und Silbenstruktur des Kaili sind typisch für die Sprachgruppe und die Region: Sie sind recht überschaubar und wenig komplex. Es gibt keine seltenen oder komplizierten [[Laute]], gewöhnungsbedürftig für [[deutsch]]e Muttersprachler ist lediglich, dass /[[Stimmhafter velarer Nasal|{{IPA-Text|ŋ}}]]/ auch am [[Silbe]]n- und [[Wort]]anfang stehen kann.

===Konsonanten===
{| {{Prettytable}}
! rowspan="2" |  
! colspan="2" style="background-color:#FFDEAD" | [[bilabial]]
! colspan="2" style="background-color:#FFDEAD" | [[labiodental|labio- dental]]
! colspan="2" style="background-color:#FFDEAD" | [[alveolar]]
! colspan="2" style="background-color:#FFDEAD" | [[postalveolar|post- alveolar]]
! colspan="2" style="background-color:#FFDEAD" | [[palatal]]
! colspan="2" style="background-color:#FFDEAD" | [[velar]]
! colspan="2" style="background-color:#FFDEAD" | [[glottal]]
|- style="text-align:center"
| style="width:1.7em; background-color:#FFDEAD" | [[Stimmlosigkeit|stl.]]
| style="width:1.7em; background-color:#FFDEAD; text-align:center" | [[Stimmhaftigkeit|sth.]]
| style="width:1.7em; background-color:#FFDEAD; text-align:center" | stl.
| style="width:1.7em; background-color:#FFDEAD; text-align:center" | sth.
| style="width:1.7em; background-color:#FFDEAD; text-align:center" | stl.
| style="width:1.7em; background-color:#FFDEAD; text-align:center" | sth.
| style="width:1.7em; background-color:#FFDEAD; text-align:center" | stl.
| style="width:1.7em; background-color:#FFDEAD; text-align:center" | sth.
| style="width:1.7em; background-color:#FFDEAD; text-align:center" | stl.
| style="width:1.7em; background-color:#FFDEAD; text-align:center" | sth.
| style="width:1.7em; background-color:#FFDEAD; text-align:center" | stl.
| style="width:1.7em; background-color:#FFDEAD; text-align:center" | sth.
| style="width:1.7em; background-color:#FFDEAD; text-align:center" | stl.
| style="width:1.7em; background-color:#FFDEAD; text-align:center" | sth.
|-
! style="background-color:#FFDEAD; text-align:left" | [[Plosiv]]e
| style="text-align:center" | [[Stimmloser bilabialer Plosiv|{{IPA-Text|p}}]]
| style="text-align:center" | [[Stimmhafter bilabialer Plosiv|{{IPA-Text|b}}]]
|  
|  
| style="text-align:center" | [[Stimmloser alveolarer Plosiv|{{IPA-Text|t}}]]
| style="text-align:center" | [[Stimmhafter alveolarer Plosiv|{{IPA-Text|d}}]]
|  
|  
|  
|  
| style="text-align:center" | [[Stimmloser velarer Plosiv|{{IPA-Text|k}}]]
| style="text-align:center" | [[Stimmhafter velarer Plosiv|{{IPA-Text|g}}]]
| style="text-align:center" | [[Stimmloser glottaler Plosiv|{{IPA-Text|ʔ}}]]
| style="background-color:#D8D8D8" |  
|-
! style="background-color:#FFDEAD; text-align:left" | [[Nasal (Phonetik)|Nasal]]e
|  
| style="text-align:center" | [[Stimmhafter bilabialer Nasal|{{IPA-Text|m}}]]
|  
|  
|  
| style="text-align:center" | [[Stimmhafter alveolarer Nasal|{{IPA-Text|n}}]]
|  
|  
|  
| style="text-align:center" | [[Stimmhafter palataler Nasal|{{IPA-Text|ɲ}}]]
|  
| style="text-align:center" | [[Stimmhafter velarer Nasal|{{IPA-Text|ŋ}}]]
| style="background-color:#D8D8D8" |  
| style="background-color:#D8D8D8" |  
|-
! style="background-color:#FFDEAD; text-align:left" | [[Vibrant]]en
|  
|  
|  
|  
|  
| style="text-align:center" | [[Stimmhafter alveolarer Vibrant|{{IPA-Text|r}}]]
|  
|  
|  
|  
| style="background-color:#D8D8D8" |  
| style="background-color:#D8D8D8" |  
| style="background-color:#D8D8D8" |  
| style="background-color:#D8D8D8" |  
|-
! style="background-color:#FFDEAD; text-align:left" | [[Frikativ]]e
|  
|  
|  
| style="text-align:center" | [[Stimmhafter labiodentaler Frikativ|{{IPA-Text|v}}]]
| style="text-align:center" | [[Stimmloser alveolarer Frikativ|{{IPA-Text|s}}]]
|  
|  
|  
|  
|  
|  
|  
| style="text-align:center" | [[Stimmloser glottaler Frikativ|{{IPA-Text|h}}]]
|  
|-
! style="background-color:#FFDEAD; text-align:left" | [[Affrikate]]n
|  
|  
|  
|  
|  
|  
| style="text-align:center" | [[Stimmlose postalveolare Affrikate|{{IPA-Text|tʃ}}]]
| style="text-align:center" | [[Stimmhafte postalveolare Affrikate|{{IPA-Text|dʒ}}]]
|  
|  
|  
|  
|  
|  
|-
! style="background-color:#FFDEAD; text-align:left" | [[Approximant]]en
|  
| style="text-align:center" | [[Stimmhafter labiovelarer Approximant|{{IPA-Text|w}}]]
|  
|  
|  
|  
|  
|  
|  
| style="text-align:center" | [[Stimmhafter palataler Approximant|{{IPA-Text|j}}]]
|  
|  
| style="background-color:#D8D8D8" |  
| style="background-color:#D8D8D8" |  
|-
! style="background-color:#FFDEAD; text-align:left" | laterale Approximanten
| style="background-color:#D8D8D8" |  
| style="background-color:#D8D8D8" |  
| style="background-color:#D8D8D8" |  
| style="background-color:#D8D8D8" |  
|  
| style="text-align:center" | [[Stimmhafter lateraler alveolarer Approximant|{{IPA-Text|l}}]]
|  
|  
|  
|  
|  
|  
| style="background-color:#D8D8D8" |  
| style="background-color:#D8D8D8" |  
|}

===Vokale===
{| {{Prettytable}}
| rowspan="2" |  
! colspan="2" style="background-color:#FFDEAD" | vorne
! colspan="2" style="background-color:#FFDEAD" | zentral
! colspan="2" style="background-color:#FFDEAD" | hinten
|- style="text-align:center"
| style="width:2em; background-color:#FFDEAD" | [[Rundung (Phonetik)|ung.]]
| style="width:2em; background-color:#FFDEAD" | [[Rundung (Phonetik)|ger.]]
| style="width:2em; background-color:#FFDEAD" | ung.
| style="width:2em; background-color:#FFDEAD" | ger.
| style="width:2em; background-color:#FFDEAD" | ung.
| style="width:2em; background-color:#FFDEAD" | ger.
|-
! style="background-color:#FFDEAD; text-align:left" | geschlossen
| style="text-align:center" | [[Ungerundeter geschlossener Vorderzungenvokal|{{IPA-Text|i}}]]
|  
|  
|  
|  
| style="text-align:center" | [[Gerundeter geschlossener Hinterzungenvokal|{{IPA-Text|u}}]]
|-
! style="background-color:#FFDEAD; text-align:left" | halbgeschlossen
| style="text-align:center" | [[Ungerundeter halbgeschlossener Vorderzungenvokal|{{IPA-Text|e}}]]
|  
|  
|  
|  
| style="text-align:center" | [[Gerundeter halbgeschlossener Hinterzungenvokal|{{IPA-Text|o}}]]
|-
! style="background-color:#FFDEAD; text-align:left" | mittel
|  
|  
| colspan="2" style="text-align:center" | [[Schwa|{{IPA-Text|ə}}]]
|  
|  
|-
! style="background-color:#FFDEAD; text-align:left" | offen
| style="text-align:center" | [[Ungerundeter offener Vorderzungenvokal|{{IPA-Text|a}}]]
|  
|  
|  
|  
|  
|}

Vor /a/, /i/, /j/ werden /i/, /e/, /o/, /a/ [[palatal]]isiert gesprochen, vor /u/, /w/ werden /u/, /e/, /i/, /a/ [[labial]]isiert gesprochen.

Alle [[Vokale]] gibt es als Lang- und Kurzvokale.

===Silbenstruktur===
Nicht-affigierte Wörter haben 1-4 (überwiegend 2) offene Silben aus einem [[Konsonanten]] und einem [[Vokal]]. 
Es gibt - typisch für Sprachen dieser Region - keine Konsonantenverbindungen ([[Cluster]]), die über zwei Konsonanten hinaus gehen.

===Betonung===
Betonung ([[Wortakzent]]) spielt im Kaili offenbar keine bedeutungsunterscheidende Rolle.
Der Hauptakzent liegt auf der [[Penultima]] (vorletzte [[Silbe]], von dort aus gibt es abwechselnd unbetonte Silben und Silben mit [[Nebenakzent]]en.

Kaili ist keine [[Tonsprache]].

==Grammatik==
Kaili ist eine typische [[Malayo-Polynesische_Sprachen|malaio-polynesische Sprache]], deren [[Morphologie]] [[Isolierender Sprachbau|isolierende]], aber auch einige [[Agglutinierender Sprachbau|agglutinierend]]e Charakteristika aufweist.
Sie verfügt über eine Vielzahl von [[Affix]]en für die [[Derivation]] und [[Flexion]]. [[Substantiv]]e und [[Adjektiv]]e haben keinerlei Flexion.
Es gibt prinzipiell keine [[Genus|Genera]], keine [[Numerus|Numeri]] oder [[Kasus]]. (Natürliches) Geschlecht und Anzahl werden bei Bedarf lexikalisch ausgedrückt, semanto-syntaktische Rollen durch syntaktische Position und Verbflexion markiert. [[Komparation]] und [[Gradation]] funktionieren teilweise morphologisch, teilweise lexikalisch.

Der [[Satzbautyp]] ist überwiegend SOV, die Sprache hat ausschließlich [[Präposition]]en.

===Morphologie===
Die [[Morphologie]] des Kaili ist im Wesentlichen die [[Konjugation]] des [[Verb (de)|Verbs]] sowie [[Wortbildung]] durch [[Komposition (Grammatik)|Komposition]] und [[Reduplikation (Sprache)|Reduplikation]].

====Affigierung====
=====[[Präfix]]e (Auswahl)=====

{| cellpadding="5"
| {''na-''}/{''ne-''}/{''no-''}|| [[Realis]], [[Durativ]]
|-
| ''dau – nodau''||‘nähen’ – ‘nähend’ (am nähen)
|-
| ''kande – nangande''||‘essen’ – ‘essen(d)’
|-
| ''sakaya – nosakaya''||‘Boot’ – ‘ein Boot besitzen’
|-
| ''sikola – nosikola''||‘Schule’ – ‘zur Schule gehen’
|-
| ''gasa – nagasa''||‘sauber’ - ‘sauber sein’
|-
|  
|-
| {''ma-''}/{''me-''}/{''mo-''} ||[[Irrealis]], [[Habituativ]], etc.
|-
| ''tua – matua'' ||‘alt’ – ‘alt werden, altern’
|-
| ''ruma – meruma''||‘Haus’ – ‘bewohnen, hausen’
|-
| ''kande – mangande''||‘essen’ – ‘essen(d)’
|-
| ''sangu – mosangu''||‘eins’ – ‘vereinen’
|-
| ''jarita – mojarita''||‘reden’ – ‘(be)sprechen’
|-
| ''tora – motora''||‘Wunsch’ – ‘wünschen’
|-
|  
|-
| {''ni-''}||[[Passiv]]/[[Objektfokus]] 
|-
| ''keni – nikeni''||‘tragen’ – ‘getragen’
|-
|  
|-
| {''nu-''}||[[Demonstrativ]] 
|-
| ''banua – nubanua/nubunua''||‘Haus’ – ‘dieses Haus’
|-
|  
|-
| {''ka-''}||‘für’, [[Ordinalzahl]] 
|-
| ''ngana – kangana''||‘Kind’ – ‘für das Kind, Kinder-’
|-
| ''sangu – kasangu''||‘eins’ – ‘erste(s/r)’
|-
|  
|-
| colspan="2" | {''pa-''}/{''pe-''}/{''po-''}
|-
| colspan="2" | a) [[Kausativ]]/[[Faktitiv]]
|-
| ''sangu – pasangu''||‘eins’ – ‘vereinen’
|-
| colspan="2" | b) Nomen Agentis, Nomen Instrumenti, Nomen Loci
|-
| ''jarita – pajarita''||‘reden’ – ‘Erzähler, Sprecher’
|-
| ''turu – paturu''||‘schlafen’ –‘ Schlafstatt’
|-
|  
|-
| {''popo-''}||[[Transitiv]]ierung + [[Kausativ]]/[[Faktitiv]]
|-
| ''berei – popoberei''||‘Ehegatte/-in’ – ‘heiraten’
|-
| ''tumangi – popotumangi''||‘weinen’ – ‘zum Weinen bringen’
|-
| ''(ng)ana – popoana''||‘Kind’ – ‘schwängern’
|-
|  
|-
| {''si-''}||‘gemeinsam’, [[Komitativ]] 
|-
| ''tuvu – sintuvu''||‘leben’ - ‘zusammen leben’
|-
|  
|-
| {''ti-''}/{''te-''}||‘unbeabsichtigt, unwillkürlich’
|-
| ''navu – tinavu''||‘fallen’ – ‘zusammenbrechen’
|-
| ''turu – teturu''||‘schlafen’ – ‘wegdämmern’
|}

=====[[Suffix]]e (Auswahl)=====

{| cellpadding="5"
| {''-a''}||‘viel(e)’, ‘Abstraktum’
|-
| ''talu – talua''||‘gärtnern’ – ‘Garten, Parkanlage’
|-
| ''kande – kandea''||‘essen’ – ‘Essen’, auch: ‘Reis’
|-
| ''savi – savia''||‘fahren’ – ‘Fahrzeug’
|-
| ''bulu – bulua''||‘Körperhaar’ – ‘Haupthaar’
|-
|  
|-
| {''-si''}||‘Grund’, ‘Ursprung’, [[Faktitiv]]
|-
| ''toro – torosi''||‘genesen – ‘Medizin’
|-
| ''mate – matesi''||‘tot’ – ‘töten’
|-
| ''lai – laisi''||‘gehen’ – ‘kommen von’
|-
| ''dua – duasi''||‘krank’ – ‘krank machen(d)’
|-
|  
|-
| {''-pa''}||‘Versuch’ 
|-
| ''kande – kandepa''||‘essen’ – ‘probieren, anbeißen’
|-
| ''epe – epepa''||‘hören’ – ‘versuchen zuzuhören’
|}

=====[[Zirkumfix]]e (Auswahl)=====
{| cellpadding="5"
| {''pa- -a''}||‘Ort’
|-
| ''turu – paturua''||‘schlafen’ – ‘Schlafstatt’
|-
|  
|-
| {''ka- -a''}||‘Zustand, Abstraktum’
|-
| ''pande – kapandea''||‘geschickt’ – ‘Geschicktheit’
|-
|  
|-
| {''na- -i''}/{''ma- -i''}||‘anwenden’
|-
| ''talinga – nantalingai''||‘Ohr’ – ‘zuhören’ (vgl. dt. ''ein Ohr leihen'') 
|-
| {''nomba- -i''}||‘versehen mit’ ([[Ornativ]])
|-
| ''vatu – nombavatui''||‘Stein’ – ‘pflastern, mauern’
|-
| {''nosi- -si''}||‘einander, [[reziprok]]’
|-
| ''dua – nosiduasi''||‘krank’ – ‘einander anstecken’
|}

=====[[Infix]]e (Auswahl)=====
Die Infixe sind durchweg linksperiphär. Sie können nur nach dem ersten Konsonanten einer wortinitialen Silbe eingefügt werden: 

{| cellpadding="5"
|{''-in-''}||‘Ergebnis’
|-
| ''sole – sinole''||‘braten’ – ‘Gebratenes’
|-
| ''talu – tinalu''||‘gärtnern’ –‘ Garten’
|-
|  
|-
| {''-um-''}||‘anwenden’
|-
| ''somba – sumomba''||‘Segel’ – ‘segeln’
|-
| ''tangi – tumangi''||‘Träne’ – ‘weinen’
|-
|  
|-
| {''-imb-''}||‘Ergebnis, Folge’
|-
| ''tala – timbala''||‘Scheidung’ – ‘Geschiedene(r)’
|-
|  
|-
| {''-il-''}||‘Absicht’ 
|-
| ''hau – hilau''||‘gehen’ – ‘gehen wollen’
|}

=====Beispiele für komplexe Affigierung=====
Die folgenden zwei "[[Wort|Wörter]]" sind ein Beispiel für ([[Agglutinierender Sprachbau|Agglutination]]) im Kaili 

{| cellpadding="5"
| ''nipokononampu''
|-
| ni-pokono=na=mpu
|-
| PASS.REA-mögen=3SG=AFFIRM
|-
| ‘[es] wird von ihm wirklich gerne getan’
|}

{| cellpadding="5"
| ''damonosipopasumoa''
|-
| da-mo-nosi-po-pa-s<um>oa
|-
| übrig_bleiben-IRR-RECP-Mittel-CAUS-<VBLZR>Kraft
|-
| ‘übrig bleibt wohl [bloß] einander ein Mittel zum Kraft schöpfen zu sein’ 
bzw. ‘man kann bloß noch einander Kraft geben’
|}

====[[Reduplikation]]====
Volle Reduplikation 

{| cellpadding="5"
| ''bongi – bongi-bongi''||‘Nacht’ – ‘nächtens / jede Nacht’
|-
| ''eo – eo-eo''||‘Tag’, ‘Sonne’ – ‘täglich / jeden Tag’
|-
| ''(ng)ana – ngana-ngana''||‘Kind’ – ‘(viele) Kinder’
|-
| ''sakide – sakide-sakide''||‘wenig’ - ‘(ganz) wenig’
|}

Partielle Reduplikation 
{| cellpadding="5"
| ''randua – randua-ndua''||‘zwei’ – ‘paarweise’
|}

Affigierte Reduplikation 
{| cellpadding="5"
| ''ngaya – pengaya-ngaya''||‘Sorte’ – ‘vielerlei’
|-
| ''kande – pangande-ngandemo''||‘essen’ – ‘herumprobieren’
|-
| ''tora – metora – metora-tora''||‘Wunsch‘ –‘wünschen’ – ‘ersehnen’
|-
| ''sangu – sumangu-mangu''||‘eins’ – ‘das Ganze (als Einheit)’
|}

====Komposition====
[[Komposition (Grammatik)|Komposita]] bleiben – obwohl untrennbare Einheiten mit oftmals idiosynkratischen [[Bedeutung]]en – bis auf sehr wenige Ausnahmen [[Orthographie|orthographisch]] getrennt:

{| cellpadding="5"
| ''banua vatu''||‘Steinhaus’ (‘Haus’ + ‘Stein’)
|-
| ''dua rara''||‘Liebeskummer’ (‘Krankheit’ + ‘Herz’)
|-
| ''(ng)ana guru''||‘Schüler’ (‘Kind’ + ‘Lehrer’)
|-
| ''lili ntiku''||‘umgeben’ (‘herum’ + ‘herum’)
|-
| ''tadulako''||‘Gefolgsmann, Soldat’ (''tadu'' ‘Ferse’ + ''lako'' ‘gehen’)
|-
| ''royomata''||‘schläfrig’ (''royo'' ‘offenhaltenmüssen’ + ''mata'' ‘Auge(n)’)
|}

In einigen Fällen gibt es Reduktion oder Assimilation:
{| cellpadding="5"
| ''totua'' ‘Eltern(teil)’||''tona'' ‘Mensch’+ ''tua'' ‘alt’
|-
| ''alampale'' ‘zusammenarbeiten’||''ala'' ‘nehmen’ + ''pale'' ‘Hand’
|}

===verbale Kategorien===
Die Flexion der [[Verb (de)|Verben]] (besser: [[Prädikative]]) im Kaili ist geprägt durch die zwei wichtigen Kategorien [[Modus]] und [[Genus Verbi]], die miteinander durch [[Fusion|fusion]]ierte [[Affixe]] verbunden sind. Es gibt neben dem eigentlichen Verbalgenus eine Reihe weiterer valenzbezogener Funktionen, z.B. den Faktitiv. Klitische Personalendungen gibt es nur für direkte Objekte bzw. Handlungsträger in Passiv- und Kausativsätzen.

====Modus====
Die Modalaffixe werden bei ESSER (1934) quasi als Unterscheidung [[Nichtfutur]]/[[Futur]] beschrieben, jedoch werden Zeitverhältnisse und -stufen eher lexikalisch ausgedrückt. Es handelt sich bei der vorliegenden Kategorie insofern weniger um ein [[Tempus]] als vielmehr um eine Art [[Modus (Grammatik)|Modus]], bei denen der Realis für (faktische) Handlungen in Gegenwart und Vergangenheit verwendet wird, während der Irrealis einerseits für zukünftige, andererseits (zeitstufenunabhängig) für vermutete, potentielle, fiktive oder inexistente (VAN DEN BERG: „contrafactual“) Handlungen benutzt wird.

Die [[Allomorph]]e ''{na-}~{ne-}~{no-}'' markieren den [[Realis]], die Allomorphe ''{ma-}~{me-}~{mo-}'' den [[Irrealis]], wobei das Auftreten des jeweiligen Allomorphs vor einem Stamm eine Art [[Flexionsklasse]] konstituiert. 
In Einzelfällen kann ein Stamm mit allen drei Allomorphen verbunden werden, wodurch die Bedeutung jeweils modifiziert wird:

{| cellpadding="5"
| colspan="3" | z.B. ''kande'' ‘essen’
|-
| Realis || Irrealis ||  
|-
| ''na-ngande''||''ma-ngande''||‘essen’ (tr.)
|-
| ''ne-kande''||''me-kande''||‘einschneiden/einfressen in’ (itr.)
|-
| ''no-kande-si''||''mo-kande-si''||‘jemandem etwas wegessen’
|}

====Verbalgenus====
Die Unterscheidung zwischen den zwei morphologisch sichtbaren [[Diathese|Verbaldiathesen]] wird entweder als Fokus mit den einzigen beiden Ausprägungen Agensfokus und Objektfokus oder aber als Genus Verbi mit der Unterscheidung Aktiv/Passiv beschrieben, was passender ist, wenn man die Fokusdefinition HIMMELMANNs zugrunde legt.

{| cellpadding="5"
|-
|   || Realis || || || || ||Irrealis|| || || ||
|-
| Aktiv || (1a) ''Yaku'' || ''na-ngande''||''loka''||''riava''.|| ||(1b) ''Ia''||''ma-ngande''||''loka''||''haitu.''
|-
|   ||1SG||REA-essen||Banane||gestern|| ||3 SG||IRR-essen||Banane||DEM
|-
|  
| colspan="4" | ‘Ich aß gestern [die] Banane(n).’
|  
| colspan="4" | ‘Er wird [wohl] [die] Banane(n) essen.’
|-
| Passiv || (1c) ''Ni-kande=ku''||''loka''||''riava.''|| ||||  (1d) ''Ra-kande=na''||''loka''||''haitu.''||
|-
|   || PASS.REA-essen=1SG||Banane||gestern|| || ||PASS.IRR-essen=3SG||Banane||DEM|| 
|-
|  
| colspan="4" | ‘[Die] Banane(n) wurde(n) gestern von mir gegessen.’
|  
| colspan="4" | ‘[Die] Banane[n] werden [wohl] von ihm gegessen.’
|}

====Andere valenzbezogene Mechanismen====
Transitivierungen, Faktitiv- oder Kausativableitungen dienen der Valenzerweiterung oder der Verschiebung von Argumenten in die Subjektsposition. Ich möchte hier nur einige Beispiele anführen, die typologisch interessant sind.

[[Transitiv]]ierung 
Intransitive Verben können mit {''po-''} transitiviert werden, wobei das S des intransitiven Verbs nicht zum A, sondern zum O des transitiven Verbs wird (verkappter [[Kausativ]]): 
{| cellpadding="5"
|(2a)||''Mano''||''na-tuwu.''
|-
|   ||Huhn||REA-leben
|-
|   ||colspan="2"| ‘Die Hühner leben.’
|}
{|
| (2b)||''I''||''Esa''||''nom-pa-tuwu''||''mano.''
|-
|   ||PM||Esa||REA-TR-leben||Huhn
|-
|   || colspan="4" | ‘Esa züchtet Hühner.’
|}

[[Kausativ]] 
Wird {''po-''} ein zweites Mal angefügt, so kann das transitivierte Verb um einen Kausativ erweitert werden. Historisch gesehen besteht {''popo-''} also aus zwei identischen Morphemen, aber es gibt auch Verben, bei denen es keine „Zwischenform“ gibt, in der nur ein {''po-''}steht. 

{| cellpadding="5"
| (3a)|| ''No-berei-mo''||''i''||''Dula.''
|-
|   || REA-Gatte-COMPL||PM||Dula
|-
|   || colspan="3" | ‘Dula ist verheiratet’
|}
{|
| (3b) ||''I''||''Dula''||''no-berei''||''nte''||''i''||''Ani''.
|-
|   ||PN||Dula||REA-Gatte||mit||PM||Ani
|-
|  || colspan="6" |‘Dula heiratet Ani.’
|}
{|
| (3c)||''Ia''||''nom-po-berei''||''i''||''Ani.''
|-
|   ||3SG||REA-TR-Gatte||PM||Ani
|-
|   || colspan="4" | ‘Dula heiratet Ani.’
|}
{|
| (3d) ||''Totua-na''||''ni-po-po-berei''||''ia.''
|-
|   ||Eltern-3SG||PASS.REA-CAUS-TR-Gatte||3SG
|-
|   || colspan="3" | ‘Seine Eltern haben ihn verheiratet.’
|}

{| cellpadding="5"
| (4a)||''I''||''Ni''||''no-tulisi''||''sura.''
|-
|  ||PN|| Ni||REA-schreiben|| Brief
|-
|  || colspan="3" | ‘Ni schreibt [einen] Brief.’
|}

{| cellpadding="5"
| (4b)|| ''Yaku''||''nom-popo-tulisi''||''i''||''Ni''||''sura''
|-
|   || 1SG||REA-CAUS-schreiben||PN||Ni||Brief
|-
|   || colspan="5" | ‘Ich lasse Ni einen Brief schreiben.’
|}

{| cellpadding="5"
| (4c)||''I''||''Ni''||''ni-popo-tulisi=ku''||''sura.''
|-
|   ||PN||Ni||PASS.REA-CAUS-schreiben=1SG||Brief
|-
|   || colspan="4" | ‘Ni wird von mir veranlasst, einen Brief zu schreiben.’
|}

{| cellpadding="5"
| (4d)||''Sura''||''ni-popo-tulisi=ku''||''i''||''Ni.''
|-
|   || Brief||PASS.REA-schreiben=1SG||PN||Ni
|-
|   || colspan="4" | ‘Den Brief habe ich durch Ni schreiben lassen.’
|}

Daneben gibt es aber auch eine (fragliche) Kausativkonstruktion (EVANS: „requestive”) mit ''{peki-}~{meki-}~{neki-}'' (vgl. [[Tagalog]] {''paki''-} ‘bitte’), die semantisch eine Rolle (Causer) hinzufügt, syntaktisch aber valenzreduzierend ist, da der Causee nur in einer Präpositionalphrase ausgedrückt wird bzw. zumeist weggelassen wird. 

{| cellpadding="5"
| (5a)||''I''||''Tira''||''no-dau''||''baju''.
|-
|   ||PM||Tira||REA-nähen||Kleid
|-
|   || colspan="4" | ‘Tira näht Kleider/ein Kleid.’
|}

{|
| (5b)||''Yaku''||''meki-dau''||''baju''.
|-
|   ||1SG||REQ.IRR-nähen||Kleid
|-
|   ||colspan="3" | ‘Ich möchte ein Kleid nähen lassen.’
|}

{| cellpadding="5"
| (5c)||''Yaku''||''mom-peki-dau''||''baju''||''nte''||''Tira''
|-
|   || 1SG||IRR-REQ-nähen||Kleid||mit||Tira
|-
|   ||colspan="5" | ‘Ich möchte/werde [mir] von Tira ein Kleid nähen lassen.’
|}

{| cellpadding="5"
| (6a)||''Ia''||''nom-paka-belo''||''dua=ra''
|-
|   ||3SG||REA-CAUS-gut||Krankheit=3PL
|-
|   ||colspan="3" | ‘Er heilt ihre Krankheit(en).’
|}

{| cellpadding="5"
| (6b)||''Ira''||''nom-peki-paka-belo''||''dua=ra''
|-
|   ||3PL||REA-REQ-CAUS-gut||Krankheit=3PL
|-
|   ||colspan="3" | ‘Sie baten ihn, ihre Krankheit(en) zu heilen.’
|}

===Syntax===
Der Grundsatz, dass der Kopf einer [[Phrase (Linguistik)|Phrase]] vor dem Rest steht (''[[Regens]] vor [[Rectum]]''), gilt für [[Kompusitum|Komposita]], [[Phrase]]n und [[Satz|Sätze]] gleichermaßen. 
Grundstellung der [[Satzglied]]er ist SVO oder VOS. 

Eine obligatorische [[Kopula]] gibt es nicht. In [[Passiv]]sätzen kann die [[Handlungsträger]]bezeichnung klitisch an das Verb heran treten, das Subjekt des Passivsatzes kann vor oder nach dem Verb stehen. 

{| cellpadding="5"
| (7)||''sakaya''||''mbaso''
|-
|   || Boot||groß
|-
|   || N||Adj
|-
|   ||colspan="2" |‘(das/ein) große(s) Boot’, auch: ‘das Boot ist groß’
|}

{| cellpadding="5"
| (8)||''banua''||''geira''
|-
|   || Haus ||3PL
|-
|   || N||Gen 
|-
|   ||colspan="2" | ‘ihr Haus’
|}

{| cellpadding="5"
| (9)||''Kaluku''||''hai''||''nalanga.''
|-
|   ||Kokospalme||DEM||REA:hoch_sein
|-
|   || N||Dem|| 
|-
|   ||colspan="3" | ‘Diese Kokospalme ist hoch.’
|}

{| cellpadding="5"
| (10a)||''Yaku''||''noriapu''||''uta''.
|-
|   || 1SG||REA:kochen||Gemüse
|-
|   || S||V||O
|-
|   ||colspan="3" | ‘Ich koche Gemüse.’
|}
{| cellpadding="5"
| (10b)||''Noriapuku''||''uta'' 
|-
|   || REA:kochen:1SG||Gemüse
|-
|   || V:S||O
|-
|   ||colspan="2" | ‘Ich koche Gemüse.’
|}

{| cellpadding="5"
| (11a)||''Tuamaku''||''hau''||''ri''||''talua.''
|-
|   || Vater:1SG||REA:gehen||in||Garten
|-
|   ||colspan="4" | ‘Mein Vater geht in den Garten.’
|}
{| cellpadding="5"
| (11b)||''Hau''||''ri''||''talua''||''tuamaku.''
|-
|   ||REA:gehen||in||Garten||Vater:1SG
|-
|   ||colspan="4" | ‘Mein Vater geht in den Garten.’
|}

{| cellpadding="5"
| (12a)|| ''I''|| ''mange''||''nangali''||''bengga.''
|-
|   || PM|| Onkel|| kaufen|| Büffel
|-
|   ||colspan="s"| S ||V||O
|-
|   ||colspan="4" | ‘Der Onkel kauft (einen) Büffel.’
|}
{| cellpadding="5"
| (12b)|| ''Ningali'' ||''bengga.''
|-
|   || PASS.REA:kaufen|| Büffel
|-
|   || V || S
|-
|   ||colspan="2" | ‘Büffel werden verkauft/zu verkaufen.’
|}
{| cellpadding="5"
| (12c) ||''Bengga''|| ''ningali.''
|-
|   || Büffel||PASS.REA:kaufen
|-
|   || S||V
|-
|   || colspan="2" | ‘Büffel werden verkauft/zu verkaufen.’
|}

{| cellpadding="5"
| (13) || ''Tona''|| ''hai''|| ''ledo''|| ''nangande''|| ''kandea.''
|-
|   ||Mensch||DEM||NEG||REA:essen||Reis.
|-
|   ||N||Dem||Neg||V|| 
|-
|   ||colspan="5" |‘Dieser Mensch isst keinen Reis.’
|}

{| cellpadding="5"
| (14a)||''Langgai''||''haitu''||''no-boba''||''i''||''Tira.''
|-
|   ||Mann||DEM||REA-schlagen||PN||Tira
|-
|   ||colspan="5" |‘Dieser Mann schlug Tira
|}
{| cellpadding="5"
| (14b)||''Yaku''||''nang-gita''||''langgai''||''no-boba''||''i''||''Tira.''
|-
|   ||1SG||REA-sehen||Mann||REA-schlagen||PM||Tira
|-
|   ||colspan="6" |‘Ich sehe den Mann, der Tira geschlagen hat.’
|}

==Wortschatz==
Das Kaili kann seine Lage und seine Verwandtschaft nicht verheimlichen: Es gibt unzählige West-Malayo-Polynesische [[Erbwort|Erbwörter]] (Kognate), vor allem natürlich mit benachbarten Sprachen Sulawesis (z.B. ''loka'' ‘Banane’), darüber hinaus aber auch mit dem [[Malaiische Sprache|Malaiischen]] (z.B. ''mate'' ‘tot’) und mit Philippinensprachen (z.B. ''mano'' ‘Huhn’).
[[Lehnwort|Lehnwörter]] aus dem [[Sanskrit]] (z.B. ''guru'' ‘Lehrer’) und dem [[Arabische Sprache|Arabischen]] (z.B. ''tala'' ‘Scheidung’) tauchen fast nur in religösen Kontexten auf, sind jedoch seltener als in der Bahasa Indonesia und in der Regel über das Malaiische ins Kaili gelangt. Lehnwörter aus [[Kolonialsprache]]n sind ziemlich selten (vgl. aber z.B. ''sikola'' ‘Schule’).
Nicht [[Affix|affigierte]], [[kontext]]lose Wörter sind oftmals kategorie- und [[Wortart|wortklassenneutral]].

Es gibt keine [[Zähleinheitswort|Zähleinheitswörter]] ([[Classifier]]), keine [[Artikel]] und bis auf einige honorifizierende [[Anredepronomen|Anredepronomina]] und [[Demonstrativpronomen|Demonstrativa]] keine besondere [[Höflichkeitssprache]].

Außer einigen [[Lexikostatistik|lexikostatistischen Vergleichen]] mit Nachbarsprachen (z.B. bei KASENG) gibt es keine eingehenden Studien zur [[Lexik]] des Kaili.

==Schrift==
Eine eigene [[Schrift]] und [[Schrifttradition]] (wie bei einigen Sprachen Süd-Sulawesis, z.B. [[Bugis|Buginesisch]]) hat es im Kaili nicht gegeben. Verwendet wird ausschließlich das [[Lateinalphabet]] ohne Q, X (außer in [[Fremdwort|Fremdwörtern]]) und ohne [[Sonderzeichen]]. 
Die [[Orthographie]] folgt weitestgehend den Regeln der [[Indonesische Sprache|Indonesischen]] Rechtschreibung von 1972:
/{{IPA-Text|tʃ}}/ wird mit C geschrieben, /{{IPA-Text|dʒ}}/ mit J, /{{IPA-Text|j}}/ mit Y,
/{{IPA-Text|ɲ}}/ mit NY, /{{IPA-Text|ŋ}}/ mit NG,
intervokalisches /{{IPA-Text|ʔ}}/ kann bei Bedarf mit ’ wiedergegeben werden, initial ist es vor Vokalen implizit.

In manchen Grammatiken und wissenschaftlichen Publikationen werden Langvokale durch Doppeltschreibung markiert, dies scheint allerdings kein Standard zu sein.

==Beispieltext==
Der Beispieltext ist der Anfang eines Märchens, erzählt 1982 im Ledo-Dialekt.
Die Phrase ''Panguli nu tesa ntotua nggaulu'' ist der typische Märchenanfang, so wie im Deutschen ''Es war einmal...'' 

{| border="0" cellpadding="8" cellspacing="1"
| valign="top" align="justify" width="50%" | Panguli nu tesa ntotua nggaulu, naria vei saito madika nipokononampu noasu. Ane madotamo rarana haumo ia noasu ante tadulakona. Bara santipa sanggani, bara eo-eo. Ane nambela tonji belo norasi, ane nambela tonji da vai, mau valeana ledo naria nikava. (SARO, S. 39)
| valign="top" align="justify" width="50%" | Einer Geschichte (meiner) Eltern von früher zufolge gab es doch einen König, der es wirklich liebte, zu jagen. Wenn der Wunsch aufzubrechen in ihm [wörtl.: in seinem Herzen] aufkam, ging er zusammen mit seinem Gefolge los, um zu jagen. Manchmal einmal in der Woche, manchmal jeden Tag. An guten Tagen hatte er Erfolg, an schlechten Tagen gab es nicht einmal eine Spur zu finden.
|}

{| cellpadding="3"
|''Pa-nguli''||''nu''||''tesa''||''n=totua''||''nggaulu'',
|-
|NMLZ-sagen||SRC||Geschichte||SRC=Eltern||früher
|-
|  
|-
|''naria''||''vei''||''saito''||''madika''||''ni-pokono=na=mpu''||''noasu''.
|-
|sein||AFFIRM||ein||König||PASS.REA-mögen=3SG=AFFIRM||jagen
|-
|  
|-
|''Ane''||''ma-dota-mo''||''rara-na''||''hau-mo''
|-
|Wenn||IRR-Willen-COMPL||Herz-3SG.POSS||gehen-COMPL
|-
|  
|-
|''ia''||''noasu''||''ante''||''tadulako=na''.
|-
|3SG||jagen||mit||Gefolge=3SG.POSS
|-
|  
|-
|''Bara''||''sa-ntipa''||''sa-nggani'',||''bara''||''eo-eo''.
|-
|manchmal||ein-Woche||ein-mal||manchmal||Tag<Redup>
|-
|  
|-
|''Ane''||''nambela''||''tonji''||''belo''||''norasi'',
|-
|Wenn||bekommen||Mal||gut||Ertrag
|-
|  
|-
|''ane''||''nambela''||''tonji''||''da''||''vai'',
|-
|wenn||bekommen||Mal||schlecht||wieder
|-
|  
|-
| ''mau''||''valeana''||''ledo''||''naria''||''ni-kava''.
|-
| sogar||Fährte||NEG||sein||PASS.REA-antreffen
|}

==Forschung==
Teilaspekte des Kaili sind in Ansätzen erforscht. Eine umfassende [[Dokumentation]] oder eine [[Referenzgrammatik]] gibt es jedoch nicht.

==Literatur==
* ESSER, S.J.: Handleiding voor de beoefening der Ledo-taal. Inleiding, Teksten met vertaling en aanteekeningen en woordenlĳst. Bandung: Nix, 1934. (= Verhandelingen van het Koninklĳk Bataviaasch Genootschap van Kunsten en Wetenschappen; Deel LXXII; eerste stuk). 
* EVANS, DONNA: Causation in Kaili. In: STEINHAUER (Hrsg.), S. 173-189. 
* HIMMELMANN, NIKOLAUS P. (1996): Person marking and grammatical relations in Sulawesi. In: STEINHAUER (Hrsg.), S. 115-136. 
* HIMMELMANN, NIKOLAUS P. (2002): Voice in Western Austronesian: AnUpdate. In: WOUK, FAY / ROSS, MALCOLM (Hrsgg.): The history and typology of western Austronesian voice systems. Canberra: Department of Linguistics, Research School of Pacific Studies, The Australian National University, 2002. (= Pacific Linguistics; 518). S. 7-15. 
* HIMMELMANN, NIKOLAUS P. (in Vorb.): Language endangerment scenarios in northern Central Sulawesi. In: Oceanic LInguistics. 
* KASENG, SYAHRUDDIN et al.: Bahasa-Bahasa di Sulawesi Tengah. Jakarta: Pusat Pembinaan dan Pengembangan Bahasa / Departemen Pendidikian dan Kebudayaan, 1979. (= Pusat Pembinaan dan Pengembangan Bahasa; Seri Bb 13). 
* MCGLYNN, JOHN H. et al. (Hrsgg): Indonesian Heritage: Language and Literature. Reprint. Singapore: Archipelago Press, 1999. (= Indonesian Heritage Series; 10). 
* SARO, AHMAD et al.: Struktur Sastra Lisan Kaili. Jakarta: Departemen Pendidikian dan Kebudayaan, 1991. 
* SNEDDON, J[AMES] N[EIL]: Northern Sulawesi. In: Wurm (Hrsg.), Kt. 43. 
* SOFYAN, ANGHUONG ALIAS et al.: Morfologi dan Sintaksis Bahasa Kaili. Jakarta: Pusat Pembinaan dan Pengembangan Bahasa / Departemen Pendidikian dan Kebudayaan, 1979. (= Pusat Pembinaan dan Pengembangan Bahasa; Seri Bb 21). 
* STEINHAUER, HEIN (Hrsg.): Papers in Austronesian Linguistics No. 3. Canberra: Department of Linguistics, Research School of Pacific and Asian Studies, The Australian National University, 1996. (= Pacific Linguistics; A; 84). 
* VAN DEN BERG, RENÉ: The demise of focus and the spread of conjugated verbs in Sulawesi. In: STEINHAUER (Hrsg.), S. 89-114. 
* WURM, STEPHEN A. (Hrsg.): Language Atlas of the Pacific area. Part 2. Japan area, Taiwan (Formosa), Philippines, Mainland and insular South-East Asia. Canberra: Australian Academy of the Humanities, 1983. Kt. 25-47 (= Pacific linguistics; C; 67) 

==Weblinks==
*KAILI, LEDO: a language of Indonesia (Sulawesi) = http://www.ethnologue.com/show_language.asp?code=LEW
*Bahasa Kaili Sudah di Ambang Kepunahan = http://www.kompas.com/kompas-cetak/0211/06/daerah/baha34.htm
*Mencegah Kepunahan Budaya Lokal = http://www.pikiran-rakyat.com/cetak/0304/06/0802.htm

Achtung: [[Ethnologue]] ist manchmal irreführend, die Klassifikation nach Sprachen bzw. Dialekten von [[SIL International]] widerspricht manchmal dem internationalen Konsens in der Sprachwissenschaft und/oder dem Verständnis der Sprecher der betreffenden Sprachen.

[[Category:De]]
[[Category:Single language]]

Kaili

2021-01-04T08:10:16Z

Kirk Miller: rv. and comment-out box

'''Kaili''' (ISO 639-3: lew) ist ein [[Dialektkontinuum]] in der Gruppe der Kaili-Pamona-Sprachen und wird in Zentral-[[Sulawesi]] ([[Indonesien]]) gesprochen. In seiner Gesamtheit ist Kaili eine der größten Mittelsulawesisprachen.

Im Folgenden wird der Hauptdialekt '''Ledo''', wie er im Bezirk (Kabupaten) Donggala und der Provinzhauptstadt Palu verwendet wird, beschrieben.

==Sprachgenealogie==
===Klassifikation===
Die Kaili-Pamona-Sprachen (oder ''westliche [[Torajas|Toraja]]-Sprachen'') gehören zu den Sulawesisprachen, einem Zweig der [[West Malayo-Polynesisch]]en Sprachen in der [[Austronesische Sprachen|austronesischen Sprachfamilie]].

===Geschichte===
Über die frühe [[Sprachgeschichte]] des Kaili ist nicht sehr viel bekannt, da es keine schriftlichen Zeugnisse aus vorkolonialer Zeit gibt.

==Geografische Verteilung==
Kaili wird fast ausschließlich in der Provinz Sulawesi Tengah (Zentral-Sulawesi, [[Indonesien]]) gesprochen. Es gibt aber nennenswerte Gruppen von vorübergehend oder dauerhaft abgewanderten Kaili-Sprechern auf Java in den Städten in Jakarta und Yogyakarta.

===Offizieller Status===
Kaili ist nirgendwo [[Amtssprache]]. Es ist "Regionalsprache" ohne offiziellen Status in der [[Indonesien|Republik Indonesien]].

===Dialekte und Soziolekte===
Es gibt 13 [[Dialekt]]e im Kaili: Rao, Tajio (od. Ajio), Kori, Doi, Unde (od. Ndepu, Undepu), Ledo (od. Palu), Da’a, Inde, Ija, Edo, Ado, Ava, Tara. Nicht alle Dialekte sind untereinander gut verstehbar. Die Namen der Dialekte sind normalerweise das jeweilige [[Schibboleth]] mit der Bedeutung ‘nein, nicht’.
Hauptdialekt und Varietät mit dem höchsten Prestige ist Ledo, das vor allem in der Provinzhauptstadt Palu und dem Umland gesprochen wird; Ledo dient(e) darüber hinaus in weiten Teilen Mittelsulawesis sowie sporadisch in Küstenbereichen und kleinen Inseln des Golfs von Tomini als [[Lingua franca]].

===Sprecherzahlen===
Ledo: 128.000 (Ethnologue, 2006)
Kaili insgesamt: 334.000 (KASENG, 1978) / 290.000 (SNEDDON, 1983) / 233.500 (Ethnologue, 2006) 

1979 war ein Drittel der etwas über 1 Mio. Bewohner der Provinz Sulawesi Tengah [[Muttersprachler]] des Kaili. Heutzutage sind es eine Viertelmillion der über 2,5 Millionen Einwohner).
Beinahe alle Sprecher des Kaili sind mehrsprachig und sprechen zumindest noch [[Indonesische Sprache|Bahasa Indonesia]].

==Sprachsoziologie==
Die staatlichen Zeitungen und die großen Fernsehsender verwenden ausschließlich [[Indonesische Sprache|Bahasa Indonesia]]. Einige private Radiosender senden (zumindest zeitweise) auch auf Ledo. Regionale Verlage bringen vereinzelt Bücher in Kaili heraus, jedoch kaum oder keine Übersetzungen ins Kaili, sondern nur regionale Literatur. Regionale Zeitungen und die wenige nicht-mündliche Literatur sind überwiegend im Ledo-Dialekt. Nationale Fördermittel für derartige regionalsprachlichen Medien scheinen zwar vorhanden aber recht ungleichmäßig (zugunsten Javas und Sumatras) verteilt zu sein.
Die folkloristischen Elemente der oralen Tradition im Kaili (Liedgut, Märchen, Mythen, Dichtung) sind immer noch weitgehend bekannt, auch modernes Kulturschaffen findet teilweise (aber nachlassend) in Kaili statt.
Kaili ist an den allgemeinbildenden Schulen weder als Unterrischtssprache noch als [[Unterricht]]sgegenstand vorgesehen. Bemühungen einiger [[Linguist]]en und [[Pädagoge]]n, Kaili zumindest in der Mittelschule zum Unterrichtsfach zu machen, stoßen bei Verwaltung und Bevölkerung gleichermaßen auf Indifferenz und Desinteresse.

Die ''Universitas Tadulako'' in Palu führt zwar ein Kaili-Wort im Namen, hat aber als staatliche Institution ausschließlich Bahasa Indonesia als Amts- und Unterrichtssprache. Es gibt aber Abteilungen für Linguistik, für Literaturwissenschaft und für die Lehrerausbildung, die sich u.a. mit Kaili beschäftigen.

=== Linguistisches Ungleichgewicht ===
====Stadt – Land====
In den Großstädten wirkt sich die Transmigrasi-Politik Suhartos aus. Es gibt viele Menschen deren Muttersprache eine andere Regionalsprache ist. Gegenüber diesen wird Bahasa Indonesia verwendet. Oftmals entstehen so bi- bzw. trilinguale Familien, in denen dann stets Bahasa Indonesia oder [[Betawi]]/Jakarta-Indonesisch die „Verkehrssprache“ ist. Im tieferen Hinterland ist Kaili jedoch nach wie vor die Hauptsprache, oft auch die einzige Sprache. Hier gibt es überwiegend monolinguale Familien (Kaili) und nur in seltenen Fällen Mischfamilien, in denen hauptsächlich Bahasa Indonesia gesprochen wird.

====Generationenfrage====
Die sehr Alten (Kindheit bis 1930er Jahre) sind oft noch einsprachig in Kaili Die Generationen, die seit der Unabhängigkeit (1945) aufgewachsen sind, sind in der Regel zweisprachig (Bahasa Indonesia und Kaili), wobei sie im Elternhaus Kaili und in der Schule/im Beruf Bahasa Indonesia gelernt haben bzw. verwenden. Die jüngsten Generationen ([[Spracherwerb]] seit den 1980er Jahren) sind zumeist auch im Elternhaus schon mit Bahasa Indonesia als Erstsprache aufgewachsen und haben Kaili – wenn überhaupt – nur sporadisch gelernt (nur passive Kenntnisse), es gibt eine ganze Generation von [[Halbsprecher]]n, die weder in Kaili noch in Bahasa Indonesia eine lückenlose Kompetenz haben.

====Domänen====
In der Schule, im Berufsleben und im Umgang mit Behörden ist die Verwendung der Bahasa Indonesia Pflicht. Unter den Schülern (auch wenn sie alle Kaili sprechen) wird daher auch privat meist Bahasa Indonesia verwendet.
Im semiformellen und familiären Umfeld (auch z.B. beim Einkauf in den kleineren privaten Läden) wird Kaili verwendet, wenn alle Gesprächsteilnehmer Kaili verstehen und sprechen können. Außerhalb der Provinz Sulawesi Tengah wird Kaili allenfalls als eine Art [[Geheimsprache|Geheim]- oder [[Gruppensprache]] oder verwendet.

====Prestige====
Je nach Situation kann eine gute Kompetenz in Kaili (insbesondere „gepflegtem Ledo“) auch als ein positives Gut angesehen werden. Normalerweise wird aber eher Wert auf eine gute Beherrschung der Bahasa Indonesia gelegt, die in Schule und Beruf Erfolg verheißender ist. Kaili wird als Kulturgut empfunden, dessen alltäglicher Nutzwert gegen Null strebt, sobald man die Region verlässt.

===Bedrohungssituation===
Mit einer (noch) sechsstelligen Sprecherzahl scheint Kaili vordergründig nicht akut gefährdet zu sein. Die Entwicklung der letzten 60, insbesondere aber der letzten 20 Jahre lässt jedoch ahnen, dass die Sprache auf Dauer dem Druck der Bahasa Indonesia nicht gewachsen sein wird. Da Kaili seit Jahrhunderten eine wichtige [[Lingua franca]] in der Region ist und auch die Sprache der im Bezirk Donggala politisch wie ökonomisch dominierenden Bevölkerung, übt es seinerseits permanent Druck auf kleinere Sprachen der Region aus. Die Bedeutung des Kaili als [[Verkehrssprache]] lässt jedoch nach, in diese [[Domäne]] dringt Bahasa Indonesia geplant vor. Für die Situation des Kaili selbst gibt es noch keine detaillierten Untersuchungen, vgl. aber HIMMELMANN (in Vorb.) für die benachbarten [[Tolitoli-Tomini-Sprachen]], die von Regionalsprachen, darunter Kaili, „bedrängt“ werden.

==Phonetik und Phonologie==
Lautinventar und Silbenstruktur des Kaili sind typisch für die Sprachgruppe und die Region: Sie sind recht überschaubar und wenig komplex. Es gibt keine seltenen oder komplizierten [[Laute]], gewöhnungsbedürftig für [[deutsch]]e Muttersprachler ist lediglich, dass /[[Stimmhafter velarer Nasal|{{IPA-Text|ŋ}}]]/ auch am [[Silbe]]n- und [[Wort]]anfang stehen kann.

===Konsonanten===
{| {{Prettytable}}
! rowspan="2" |  
! colspan="2" style="background-color:#FFDEAD" | [[bilabial]]
! colspan="2" style="background-color:#FFDEAD" | [[labiodental|labio- dental]]
! colspan="2" style="background-color:#FFDEAD" | [[alveolar]]
! colspan="2" style="background-color:#FFDEAD" | [[postalveolar|post- alveolar]]
! colspan="2" style="background-color:#FFDEAD" | [[palatal]]
! colspan="2" style="background-color:#FFDEAD" | [[velar]]
! colspan="2" style="background-color:#FFDEAD" | [[glottal]]
|- style="text-align:center"
| style="width:1.7em; background-color:#FFDEAD" | [[Stimmlosigkeit|stl.]]
| style="width:1.7em; background-color:#FFDEAD; text-align:center" | [[Stimmhaftigkeit|sth.]]
| style="width:1.7em; background-color:#FFDEAD; text-align:center" | stl.
| style="width:1.7em; background-color:#FFDEAD; text-align:center" | sth.
| style="width:1.7em; background-color:#FFDEAD; text-align:center" | stl.
| style="width:1.7em; background-color:#FFDEAD; text-align:center" | sth.
| style="width:1.7em; background-color:#FFDEAD; text-align:center" | stl.
| style="width:1.7em; background-color:#FFDEAD; text-align:center" | sth.
| style="width:1.7em; background-color:#FFDEAD; text-align:center" | stl.
| style="width:1.7em; background-color:#FFDEAD; text-align:center" | sth.
| style="width:1.7em; background-color:#FFDEAD; text-align:center" | stl.
| style="width:1.7em; background-color:#FFDEAD; text-align:center" | sth.
| style="width:1.7em; background-color:#FFDEAD; text-align:center" | stl.
| style="width:1.7em; background-color:#FFDEAD; text-align:center" | sth.
|-
! style="background-color:#FFDEAD; text-align:left" | [[Plosiv]]e
| style="text-align:center" | [[Stimmloser bilabialer Plosiv|{{IPA-Text|p}}]]
| style="text-align:center" | [[Stimmhafter bilabialer Plosiv|{{IPA-Text|b}}]]
|  
|  
| style="text-align:center" | [[Stimmloser alveolarer Plosiv|{{IPA-Text|t}}]]
| style="text-align:center" | [[Stimmhafter alveolarer Plosiv|{{IPA-Text|d}}]]
|  
|  
|  
|  
| style="text-align:center" | [[Stimmloser velarer Plosiv|{{IPA-Text|k}}]]
| style="text-align:center" | [[Stimmhafter velarer Plosiv|{{IPA-Text|g}}]]
| style="text-align:center" | [[Stimmloser glottaler Plosiv|{{IPA-Text|ʔ}}]]
| style="background-color:#D8D8D8" |  
|-
! style="background-color:#FFDEAD; text-align:left" | [[Nasal (Phonetik)|Nasal]]e
|  
| style="text-align:center" | [[Stimmhafter bilabialer Nasal|{{IPA-Text|m}}]]
|  
|  
|  
| style="text-align:center" | [[Stimmhafter alveolarer Nasal|{{IPA-Text|n}}]]
|  
|  
|  
| style="text-align:center" | [[Stimmhafter palataler Nasal|{{IPA-Text|ɲ}}]]
|  
| style="text-align:center" | [[Stimmhafter velarer Nasal|{{IPA-Text|ŋ}}]]
| style="background-color:#D8D8D8" |  
| style="background-color:#D8D8D8" |  
|-
! style="background-color:#FFDEAD; text-align:left" | [[Vibrant]]en
|  
|  
|  
|  
|  
| style="text-align:center" | [[Stimmhafter alveolarer Vibrant|{{IPA-Text|r}}]]
|  
|  
|  
|  
| style="background-color:#D8D8D8" |  
| style="background-color:#D8D8D8" |  
| style="background-color:#D8D8D8" |  
| style="background-color:#D8D8D8" |  
|-
! style="background-color:#FFDEAD; text-align:left" | [[Frikativ]]e
|  
|  
|  
| style="text-align:center" | [[Stimmhafter labiodentaler Frikativ|{{IPA-Text|v}}]]
| style="text-align:center" | [[Stimmloser alveolarer Frikativ|{{IPA-Text|s}}]]
|  
|  
|  
|  
|  
|  
|  
| style="text-align:center" | [[Stimmloser glottaler Frikativ|{{IPA-Text|h}}]]
|  
|-
! style="background-color:#FFDEAD; text-align:left" | [[Affrikate]]n
|  
|  
|  
|  
|  
|  
| style="text-align:center" | [[Stimmlose postalveolare Affrikate|{{IPA-Text|tʃ}}]]
| style="text-align:center" | [[Stimmhafte postalveolare Affrikate|{{IPA-Text|dʒ}}]]
|  
|  
|  
|  
|  
|  
|-
! style="background-color:#FFDEAD; text-align:left" | [[Approximant]]en
|  
| style="text-align:center" | [[Stimmhafter labiovelarer Approximant|{{IPA-Text|w}}]]
|  
|  
|  
|  
|  
|  
|  
| style="text-align:center" | [[Stimmhafter palataler Approximant|{{IPA-Text|j}}]]
|  
|  
| style="background-color:#D8D8D8" |  
| style="background-color:#D8D8D8" |  
|-
! style="background-color:#FFDEAD; text-align:left" | laterale Approximanten
| style="background-color:#D8D8D8" |  
| style="background-color:#D8D8D8" |  
| style="background-color:#D8D8D8" |  
| style="background-color:#D8D8D8" |  
|  
| style="text-align:center" | [[Stimmhafter lateraler alveolarer Approximant|{{IPA-Text|l}}]]
|  
|  
|  
|  
|  
|  
| style="background-color:#D8D8D8" |  
| style="background-color:#D8D8D8" |  
|}

===Vokale===
{| {{Prettytable}}
| rowspan="2" |  
! colspan="2" style="background-color:#FFDEAD" | vorne
! colspan="2" style="background-color:#FFDEAD" | zentral
! colspan="2" style="background-color:#FFDEAD" | hinten
|- style="text-align:center"
| style="width:2em; background-color:#FFDEAD" | [[Rundung (Phonetik)|ung.]]
| style="width:2em; background-color:#FFDEAD" | [[Rundung (Phonetik)|ger.]]
| style="width:2em; background-color:#FFDEAD" | ung.
| style="width:2em; background-color:#FFDEAD" | ger.
| style="width:2em; background-color:#FFDEAD" | ung.
| style="width:2em; background-color:#FFDEAD" | ger.
|-
! style="background-color:#FFDEAD; text-align:left" | geschlossen
| style="text-align:center" | [[Ungerundeter geschlossener Vorderzungenvokal|{{IPA-Text|i}}]]
|  
|  
|  
|  
| style="text-align:center" | [[Gerundeter geschlossener Hinterzungenvokal|{{IPA-Text|u}}]]
|-
! style="background-color:#FFDEAD; text-align:left" | halbgeschlossen
| style="text-align:center" | [[Ungerundeter halbgeschlossener Vorderzungenvokal|{{IPA-Text|e}}]]
|  
|  
|  
|  
| style="text-align:center" | [[Gerundeter halbgeschlossener Hinterzungenvokal|{{IPA-Text|o}}]]
|-
! style="background-color:#FFDEAD; text-align:left" | mittel
|  
|  
| colspan="2" style="text-align:center" | [[Schwa|{{IPA-Text|ə}}]]
|  
|  
|-
! style="background-color:#FFDEAD; text-align:left" | offen
| style="text-align:center" | [[Ungerundeter offener Vorderzungenvokal|{{IPA-Text|a}}]]
|  
|  
|  
|  
|  
|}

Vor /a/, /i/, /j/ werden /i/, /e/, /o/, /a/ [[palatal]]isiert gesprochen, vor /u/, /w/ werden /u/, /e/, /i/, /a/ [[labial]]isiert gesprochen.

Alle [[Vokale]] gibt es als Lang- und Kurzvokale.

===Silbenstruktur===
Nicht-affigierte Wörter haben 1-4 (überwiegend 2) offene Silben aus einem [[Konsonanten]] und einem [[Vokal]]. 
Es gibt - typisch für Sprachen dieser Region - keine Konsonantenverbindungen ([[Cluster]]), die über zwei Konsonanten hinaus gehen.

===Betonung===
Betonung ([[Wortakzent]]) spielt im Kaili offenbar keine bedeutungsunterscheidende Rolle.
Der Hauptakzent liegt auf der [[Penultima]] (vorletzte [[Silbe]], von dort aus gibt es abwechselnd unbetonte Silben und Silben mit [[Nebenakzent]]en.

Kaili ist keine [[Tonsprache]].

==Grammatik==
Kaili ist eine typische [[Malayo-Polynesische_Sprachen|malaio-polynesische Sprache]], deren [[Morphologie]] [[Isolierender Sprachbau|isolierende]], aber auch einige [[Agglutinierender Sprachbau|agglutinierend]]e Charakteristika aufweist.
Sie verfügt über eine Vielzahl von [[Affix]]en für die [[Derivation]] und [[Flexion]]. [[Substantiv]]e und [[Adjektiv]]e haben keinerlei Flexion.
Es gibt prinzipiell keine [[Genus|Genera]], keine [[Numerus|Numeri]] oder [[Kasus]]. (Natürliches) Geschlecht und Anzahl werden bei Bedarf lexikalisch ausgedrückt, semanto-syntaktische Rollen durch syntaktische Position und Verbflexion markiert. [[Komparation]] und [[Gradation]] funktionieren teilweise morphologisch, teilweise lexikalisch.

Der [[Satzbautyp]] ist überwiegend SOV, die Sprache hat ausschließlich [[Präposition]]en.

===Morphologie===
Die [[Morphologie]] des Kaili ist im Wesentlichen die [[Konjugation]] des [[Verb (de)|Verbs]] sowie [[Wortbildung]] durch [[Komposition (Grammatik)|Komposition]] und [[Reduplikation (Sprache)|Reduplikation]].

====Affigierung====
=====[[Präfix]]e (Auswahl)=====

{| cellpadding="5"
| {''na-''}/{''ne-''}/{''no-''}|| [[Realis]], [[Durativ]]
|-
| ''dau – nodau''||‘nähen’ – ‘nähend’ (am nähen)
|-
| ''kande – nangande''||‘essen’ – ‘essen(d)’
|-
| ''sakaya – nosakaya''||‘Boot’ – ‘ein Boot besitzen’
|-
| ''sikola – nosikola''||‘Schule’ – ‘zur Schule gehen’
|-
| ''gasa – nagasa''||‘sauber’ - ‘sauber sein’
|-
|  
|-
| {''ma-''}/{''me-''}/{''mo-''} ||[[Irrealis]], [[Habituativ]], etc.
|-
| ''tua – matua'' ||‘alt’ – ‘alt werden, altern’
|-
| ''ruma – meruma''||‘Haus’ – ‘bewohnen, hausen’
|-
| ''kande – mangande''||‘essen’ – ‘essen(d)’
|-
| ''sangu – mosangu''||‘eins’ – ‘vereinen’
|-
| ''jarita – mojarita''||‘reden’ – ‘(be)sprechen’
|-
| ''tora – motora''||‘Wunsch’ – ‘wünschen’
|-
|  
|-
| {''ni-''}||[[Passiv]]/[[Objektfokus]] 
|-
| ''keni – nikeni''||‘tragen’ – ‘getragen’
|-
|  
|-
| {''nu-''}||[[Demonstrativ]] 
|-
| ''banua – nubanua/nubunua''||‘Haus’ – ‘dieses Haus’
|-
|  
|-
| {''ka-''}||‘für’, [[Ordinalzahl]] 
|-
| ''ngana – kangana''||‘Kind’ – ‘für das Kind, Kinder-’
|-
| ''sangu – kasangu''||‘eins’ – ‘erste(s/r)’
|-
|  
|-
| colspan="2" | {''pa-''}/{''pe-''}/{''po-''}
|-
| colspan="2" | a) [[Kausativ]]/[[Faktitiv]]
|-
| ''sangu – pasangu''||‘eins’ – ‘vereinen’
|-
| colspan="2" | b) Nomen Agentis, Nomen Instrumenti, Nomen Loci
|-
| ''jarita – pajarita''||‘reden’ – ‘Erzähler, Sprecher’
|-
| ''turu – paturu''||‘schlafen’ –‘ Schlafstatt’
|-
|  
|-
| {''popo-''}||[[Transitiv]]ierung + [[Kausativ]]/[[Faktitiv]]
|-
| ''berei – popoberei''||‘Ehegatte/-in’ – ‘heiraten’
|-
| ''tumangi – popotumangi''||‘weinen’ – ‘zum Weinen bringen’
|-
| ''(ng)ana – popoana''||‘Kind’ – ‘schwängern’
|-
|  
|-
| {''si-''}||‘gemeinsam’, [[Komitativ]] 
|-
| ''tuvu – sintuvu''||‘leben’ - ‘zusammen leben’
|-
|  
|-
| {''ti-''}/{''te-''}||‘unbeabsichtigt, unwillkürlich’
|-
| ''navu – tinavu''||‘fallen’ – ‘zusammenbrechen’
|-
| ''turu – teturu''||‘schlafen’ – ‘wegdämmern’
|}

=====[[Suffix]]e (Auswahl)=====

{| cellpadding="5"
| {''-a''}||‘viel(e)’, ‘Abstraktum’
|-
| ''talu – talua''||‘gärtnern’ – ‘Garten, Parkanlage’
|-
| ''kande – kandea''||‘essen’ – ‘Essen’, auch: ‘Reis’
|-
| ''savi – savia''||‘fahren’ – ‘Fahrzeug’
|-
| ''bulu – bulua''||‘Körperhaar’ – ‘Haupthaar’
|-
|  
|-
| {''-si''}||‘Grund’, ‘Ursprung’, [[Faktitiv]]
|-
| ''toro – torosi''||‘genesen – ‘Medizin’
|-
| ''mate – matesi''||‘tot’ – ‘töten’
|-
| ''lai – laisi''||‘gehen’ – ‘kommen von’
|-
| ''dua – duasi''||‘krank’ – ‘krank machen(d)’
|-
|  
|-
| {''-pa''}||‘Versuch’ 
|-
| ''kande – kandepa''||‘essen’ – ‘probieren, anbeißen’
|-
| ''epe – epepa''||‘hören’ – ‘versuchen zuzuhören’
|}

=====[[Zirkumfix]]e (Auswahl)=====
{| cellpadding="5"
| {''pa- -a''}||‘Ort’
|-
| ''turu – paturua''||‘schlafen’ – ‘Schlafstatt’
|-
|  
|-
| {''ka- -a''}||‘Zustand, Abstraktum’
|-
| ''pande – kapandea''||‘geschickt’ – ‘Geschicktheit’
|-
|  
|-
| {''na- -i''}/{''ma- -i''}||‘anwenden’
|-
| ''talinga – nantalingai''||‘Ohr’ – ‘zuhören’ (vgl. dt. ''ein Ohr leihen'') 
|-
| {''nomba- -i''}||‘versehen mit’ ([[Ornativ]])
|-
| ''vatu – nombavatui''||‘Stein’ – ‘pflastern, mauern’
|-
| {''nosi- -si''}||‘einander, [[reziprok]]’
|-
| ''dua – nosiduasi''||‘krank’ – ‘einander anstecken’
|}

=====[[Infix]]e (Auswahl)=====
Die Infixe sind durchweg linksperiphär. Sie können nur nach dem ersten Konsonanten einer wortinitialen Silbe eingefügt werden: 

{| cellpadding="5"
|{''-in-''}||‘Ergebnis’
|-
| ''sole – sinole''||‘braten’ – ‘Gebratenes’
|-
| ''talu – tinalu''||‘gärtnern’ –‘ Garten’
|-
|  
|-
| {''-um-''}||‘anwenden’
|-
| ''somba – sumomba''||‘Segel’ – ‘segeln’
|-
| ''tangi – tumangi''||‘Träne’ – ‘weinen’
|-
|  
|-
| {''-imb-''}||‘Ergebnis, Folge’
|-
| ''tala – timbala''||‘Scheidung’ – ‘Geschiedene(r)’
|-
|  
|-
| {''-il-''}||‘Absicht’ 
|-
| ''hau – hilau''||‘gehen’ – ‘gehen wollen’
|}

=====Beispiele für komplexe Affigierung=====
Die folgenden zwei "[[Wort|Wörter]]" sind ein Beispiel für ([[Agglutinierender Sprachbau|Agglutination]]) im Kaili 

{| cellpadding="5"
| ''nipokononampu''
|-
| ni-pokono=na=mpu
|-
| PASS.REA-mögen=3SG=AFFIRM
|-
| ‘[es] wird von ihm wirklich gerne getan’
|}

{| cellpadding="5"
| ''damonosipopasumoa''
|-
| da-mo-nosi-po-pa-s<um>oa
|-
| übrig_bleiben-IRR-RECP-Mittel-CAUS-<VBLZR>Kraft
|-
| ‘übrig bleibt wohl [bloß] einander ein Mittel zum Kraft schöpfen zu sein’ 
bzw. ‘man kann bloß noch einander Kraft geben’
|}

====[[Reduplikation]]====
Volle Reduplikation 

{| cellpadding="5"
| ''bongi – bongi-bongi''||‘Nacht’ – ‘nächtens / jede Nacht’
|-
| ''eo – eo-eo''||‘Tag’, ‘Sonne’ – ‘täglich / jeden Tag’
|-
| ''(ng)ana – ngana-ngana''||‘Kind’ – ‘(viele) Kinder’
|-
| ''sakide – sakide-sakide''||‘wenig’ - ‘(ganz) wenig’
|}

Partielle Reduplikation 
{| cellpadding="5"
| ''randua – randua-ndua''||‘zwei’ – ‘paarweise’
|}

Affigierte Reduplikation 
{| cellpadding="5"
| ''ngaya – pengaya-ngaya''||‘Sorte’ – ‘vielerlei’
|-
| ''kande – pangande-ngandemo''||‘essen’ – ‘herumprobieren’
|-
| ''tora – metora – metora-tora''||‘Wunsch‘ –‘wünschen’ – ‘ersehnen’
|-
| ''sangu – sumangu-mangu''||‘eins’ – ‘das Ganze (als Einheit)’
|}

====Komposition====
[[Komposition (Grammatik)|Komposita]] bleiben – obwohl untrennbare Einheiten mit oftmals idiosynkratischen [[Bedeutung]]en – bis auf sehr wenige Ausnahmen [[Orthographie|orthographisch]] getrennt:

{| cellpadding="5"
| ''banua vatu''||‘Steinhaus’ (‘Haus’ + ‘Stein’)
|-
| ''dua rara''||‘Liebeskummer’ (‘Krankheit’ + ‘Herz’)
|-
| ''(ng)ana guru''||‘Schüler’ (‘Kind’ + ‘Lehrer’)
|-
| ''lili ntiku''||‘umgeben’ (‘herum’ + ‘herum’)
|-
| ''tadulako''||‘Gefolgsmann, Soldat’ (''tadu'' ‘Ferse’ + ''lako'' ‘gehen’)
|-
| ''royomata''||‘schläfrig’ (''royo'' ‘offenhaltenmüssen’ + ''mata'' ‘Auge(n)’)
|}

In einigen Fällen gibt es Reduktion oder Assimilation:
{| cellpadding="5"
| ''totua'' ‘Eltern(teil)’||''tona'' ‘Mensch’+ ''tua'' ‘alt’
|-
| ''alampale'' ‘zusammenarbeiten’||''ala'' ‘nehmen’ + ''pale'' ‘Hand’
|}

===verbale Kategorien===
Die Flexion der [[Verb (de)|Verben]] (besser: [[Prädikative]]) im Kaili ist geprägt durch die zwei wichtigen Kategorien [[Modus]] und [[Genus Verbi]], die miteinander durch [[Fusion|fusion]]ierte [[Affixe]] verbunden sind. Es gibt neben dem eigentlichen Verbalgenus eine Reihe weiterer valenzbezogener Funktionen, z.B. den Faktitiv. Klitische Personalendungen gibt es nur für direkte Objekte bzw. Handlungsträger in Passiv- und Kausativsätzen.

====Modus====
Die Modalaffixe werden bei ESSER (1934) quasi als Unterscheidung [[Nichtfutur]]/[[Futur]] beschrieben, jedoch werden Zeitverhältnisse und -stufen eher lexikalisch ausgedrückt. Es handelt sich bei der vorliegenden Kategorie insofern weniger um ein [[Tempus]] als vielmehr um eine Art [[Modus (Grammatik)|Modus]], bei denen der Realis für (faktische) Handlungen in Gegenwart und Vergangenheit verwendet wird, während der Irrealis einerseits für zukünftige, andererseits (zeitstufenunabhängig) für vermutete, potentielle, fiktive oder inexistente (VAN DEN BERG: „contrafactual“) Handlungen benutzt wird.

Die [[Allomorph]]e ''{na-}~{ne-}~{no-}'' markieren den [[Realis]], die Allomorphe ''{ma-}~{me-}~{mo-}'' den [[Irrealis]], wobei das Auftreten des jeweiligen Allomorphs vor einem Stamm eine Art [[Flexionsklasse]] konstituiert. 
In Einzelfällen kann ein Stamm mit allen drei Allomorphen verbunden werden, wodurch die Bedeutung jeweils modifiziert wird:

{| cellpadding="5"
| colspan="3" | z.B. ''kande'' ‘essen’
|-
| Realis || Irrealis ||  
|-
| ''na-ngande''||''ma-ngande''||‘essen’ (tr.)
|-
| ''ne-kande''||''me-kande''||‘einschneiden/einfressen in’ (itr.)
|-
| ''no-kande-si''||''mo-kande-si''||‘jemandem etwas wegessen’
|}

====Verbalgenus====
Die Unterscheidung zwischen den zwei morphologisch sichtbaren [[Diathese|Verbaldiathesen]] wird entweder als Fokus mit den einzigen beiden Ausprägungen Agensfokus und Objektfokus oder aber als Genus Verbi mit der Unterscheidung Aktiv/Passiv beschrieben, was passender ist, wenn man die Fokusdefinition HIMMELMANNs zugrunde legt.

{| cellpadding="5"
|-
|   || Realis || || || || ||Irrealis|| || || ||
|-
| Aktiv || (1a) ''Yaku'' || ''na-ngande''||''loka''||''riava''.|| ||(1b) ''Ia''||''ma-ngande''||''loka''||''haitu.''
|-
|   ||1SG||REA-essen||Banane||gestern|| ||3 SG||IRR-essen||Banane||DEM
|-
|  
| colspan="4" | ‘Ich aß gestern [die] Banane(n).’
|  
| colspan="4" | ‘Er wird [wohl] [die] Banane(n) essen.’
|-
| Passiv || (1c) ''Ni-kande=ku''||''loka''||''riava.''|| ||||  (1d) ''Ra-kande=na''||''loka''||''haitu.''||
|-
|   || PASS.REA-essen=1SG||Banane||gestern|| || ||PASS.IRR-essen=3SG||Banane||DEM|| 
|-
|  
| colspan="4" | ‘[Die] Banane(n) wurde(n) gestern von mir gegessen.’
|  
| colspan="4" | ‘[Die] Banane[n] werden [wohl] von ihm gegessen.’
|}

====Andere valenzbezogene Mechanismen====
Transitivierungen, Faktitiv- oder Kausativableitungen dienen der Valenzerweiterung oder der Verschiebung von Argumenten in die Subjektsposition. Ich möchte hier nur einige Beispiele anführen, die typologisch interessant sind.

[[Transitiv]]ierung 
Intransitive Verben können mit {''po-''} transitiviert werden, wobei das S des intransitiven Verbs nicht zum A, sondern zum O des transitiven Verbs wird (verkappter [[Kausativ]]): 
{| cellpadding="5"
|(2a)||''Mano''||''na-tuwu.''
|-
|   ||Huhn||REA-leben
|-
|   ||colspan="2"| ‘Die Hühner leben.’
|}
{|
| (2b)||''I''||''Esa''||''nom-pa-tuwu''||''mano.''
|-
|   ||PM||Esa||REA-TR-leben||Huhn
|-
|   || colspan="4" | ‘Esa züchtet Hühner.’
|}

[[Kausativ]] 
Wird {''po-''} ein zweites Mal angefügt, so kann das transitivierte Verb um einen Kausativ erweitert werden. Historisch gesehen besteht {''popo-''} also aus zwei identischen Morphemen, aber es gibt auch Verben, bei denen es keine „Zwischenform“ gibt, in der nur ein {''po-''}steht. 

{| cellpadding="5"
| (3a)|| ''No-berei-mo''||''i''||''Dula.''
|-
|   || REA-Gatte-COMPL||PM||Dula
|-
|   || colspan="3" | ‘Dula ist verheiratet’
|}
{|
| (3b) ||''I''||''Dula''||''no-berei''||''nte''||''i''||''Ani''.
|-
|   ||PN||Dula||REA-Gatte||mit||PM||Ani
|-
|  || colspan="6" |‘Dula heiratet Ani.’
|}
{|
| (3c)||''Ia''||''nom-po-berei''||''i''||''Ani.''
|-
|   ||3SG||REA-TR-Gatte||PM||Ani
|-
|   || colspan="4" | ‘Dula heiratet Ani.’
|}
{|
| (3d) ||''Totua-na''||''ni-po-po-berei''||''ia.''
|-
|   ||Eltern-3SG||PASS.REA-CAUS-TR-Gatte||3SG
|-
|   || colspan="3" | ‘Seine Eltern haben ihn verheiratet.’
|}

{| cellpadding="5"
| (4a)||''I''||''Ni''||''no-tulisi''||''sura.''
|-
|  ||PN|| Ni||REA-schreiben|| Brief
|-
|  || colspan="3" | ‘Ni schreibt [einen] Brief.’
|}

{| cellpadding="5"
| (4b)|| ''Yaku''||''nom-popo-tulisi''||''i''||''Ni''||''sura''
|-
|   || 1SG||REA-CAUS-schreiben||PN||Ni||Brief
|-
|   || colspan="5" | ‘Ich lasse Ni einen Brief schreiben.’
|}

{| cellpadding="5"
| (4c)||''I''||''Ni''||''ni-popo-tulisi=ku''||''sura.''
|-
|   ||PN||Ni||PASS.REA-CAUS-schreiben=1SG||Brief
|-
|   || colspan="4" | ‘Ni wird von mir veranlasst, einen Brief zu schreiben.’
|}

{| cellpadding="5"
| (4d)||''Sura''||''ni-popo-tulisi=ku''||''i''||''Ni.''
|-
|   || Brief||PASS.REA-schreiben=1SG||PN||Ni
|-
|   || colspan="4" | ‘Den Brief habe ich durch Ni schreiben lassen.’
|}

Daneben gibt es aber auch eine (fragliche) Kausativkonstruktion (EVANS: „requestive”) mit ''{peki-}~{meki-}~{neki-}'' (vgl. [[Tagalog]] {''paki''-} ‘bitte’), die semantisch eine Rolle (Causer) hinzufügt, syntaktisch aber valenzreduzierend ist, da der Causee nur in einer Präpositionalphrase ausgedrückt wird bzw. zumeist weggelassen wird. 

{| cellpadding="5"
| (5a)||''I''||''Tira''||''no-dau''||''baju''.
|-
|   ||PM||Tira||REA-nähen||Kleid
|-
|   || colspan="4" | ‘Tira näht Kleider/ein Kleid.’
|}

{|
| (5b)||''Yaku''||''meki-dau''||''baju''.
|-
|   ||1SG||REQ.IRR-nähen||Kleid
|-
|   ||colspan="3" | ‘Ich möchte ein Kleid nähen lassen.’
|}

{| cellpadding="5"
| (5c)||''Yaku''||''mom-peki-dau''||''baju''||''nte''||''Tira''
|-
|   || 1SG||IRR-REQ-nähen||Kleid||mit||Tira
|-
|   ||colspan="5" | ‘Ich möchte/werde [mir] von Tira ein Kleid nähen lassen.’
|}

{| cellpadding="5"
| (6a)||''Ia''||''nom-paka-belo''||''dua=ra''
|-
|   ||3SG||REA-CAUS-gut||Krankheit=3PL
|-
|   ||colspan="3" | ‘Er heilt ihre Krankheit(en).’
|}

{| cellpadding="5"
| (6b)||''Ira''||''nom-peki-paka-belo''||''dua=ra''
|-
|   ||3PL||REA-REQ-CAUS-gut||Krankheit=3PL
|-
|   ||colspan="3" | ‘Sie baten ihn, ihre Krankheit(en) zu heilen.’
|}

===Syntax===
Der Grundsatz, dass der Kopf einer [[Phrase (Linguistik)|Phrase]] vor dem Rest steht (''[[Regens]] vor [[Rectum]]''), gilt für [[Kompusitum|Komposita]], [[Phrase]]n und [[Satz|Sätze]] gleichermaßen. 
Grundstellung der [[Satzglied]]er ist SVO oder VOS. 

Eine obligatorische [[Kopula]] gibt es nicht. In [[Passiv]]sätzen kann die [[Handlungsträger]]bezeichnung klitisch an das Verb heran treten, das Subjekt des Passivsatzes kann vor oder nach dem Verb stehen. 

{| cellpadding="5"
| (7)||''sakaya''||''mbaso''
|-
|   || Boot||groß
|-
|   || N||Adj
|-
|   ||colspan="2" |‘(das/ein) große(s) Boot’, auch: ‘das Boot ist groß’
|}

{| cellpadding="5"
| (8)||''banua''||''geira''
|-
|   || Haus ||3PL
|-
|   || N||Gen 
|-
|   ||colspan="2" | ‘ihr Haus’
|}

{| cellpadding="5"
| (9)||''Kaluku''||''hai''||''nalanga.''
|-
|   ||Kokospalme||DEM||REA:hoch_sein
|-
|   || N||Dem|| 
|-
|   ||colspan="3" | ‘Diese Kokospalme ist hoch.’
|}

{| cellpadding="5"
| (10a)||''Yaku''||''noriapu''||''uta''.
|-
|   || 1SG||REA:kochen||Gemüse
|-
|   || S||V||O
|-
|   ||colspan="3" | ‘Ich koche Gemüse.’
|}
{| cellpadding="5"
| (10b)||''Noriapuku''||''uta'' 
|-
|   || REA:kochen:1SG||Gemüse
|-
|   || V:S||O
|-
|   ||colspan="2" | ‘Ich koche Gemüse.’
|}

{| cellpadding="5"
| (11a)||''Tuamaku''||''hau''||''ri''||''talua.''
|-
|   || Vater:1SG||REA:gehen||in||Garten
|-
|   ||colspan="4" | ‘Mein Vater geht in den Garten.’
|}
{| cellpadding="5"
| (11b)||''Hau''||''ri''||''talua''||''tuamaku.''
|-
|   ||REA:gehen||in||Garten||Vater:1SG
|-
|   ||colspan="4" | ‘Mein Vater geht in den Garten.’
|}

{| cellpadding="5"
| (12a)|| ''I''|| ''mange''||''nangali''||''bengga.''
|-
|   || PM|| Onkel|| kaufen|| Büffel
|-
|   ||colspan="s"| S ||V||O
|-
|   ||colspan="4" | ‘Der Onkel kauft (einen) Büffel.’
|}
{| cellpadding="5"
| (12b)|| ''Ningali'' ||''bengga.''
|-
|   || PASS.REA:kaufen|| Büffel
|-
|   || V || S
|-
|   ||colspan="2" | ‘Büffel werden verkauft/zu verkaufen.’
|}
{| cellpadding="5"
| (12c) ||''Bengga''|| ''ningali.''
|-
|   || Büffel||PASS.REA:kaufen
|-
|   || S||V
|-
|   || colspan="2" | ‘Büffel werden verkauft/zu verkaufen.’
|}

{| cellpadding="5"
| (13) || ''Tona''|| ''hai''|| ''ledo''|| ''nangande''|| ''kandea.''
|-
|   ||Mensch||DEM||NEG||REA:essen||Reis.
|-
|   ||N||Dem||Neg||V|| 
|-
|   ||colspan="5" |‘Dieser Mensch isst keinen Reis.’
|}

{| cellpadding="5"
| (14a)||''Langgai''||''haitu''||''no-boba''||''i''||''Tira.''
|-
|   ||Mann||DEM||REA-schlagen||PN||Tira
|-
|   ||colspan="5" |‘Dieser Mann schlug Tira
|}
{| cellpadding="5"
| (14b)||''Yaku''||''nang-gita''||''langgai''||''no-boba''||''i''||''Tira.''
|-
|   ||1SG||REA-sehen||Mann||REA-schlagen||PM||Tira
|-
|   ||colspan="6" |‘Ich sehe den Mann, der Tira geschlagen hat.’
|}

==Wortschatz==
Das Kaili kann seine Lage und seine Verwandtschaft nicht verheimlichen: Es gibt unzählige West-Malayo-Polynesische [[Erbwort|Erbwörter]] (Kognate), vor allem natürlich mit benachbarten Sprachen Sulawesis (z.B. ''loka'' ‘Banane’), darüber hinaus aber auch mit dem [[Malaiische Sprache|Malaiischen]] (z.B. ''mate'' ‘tot’) und mit Philippinensprachen (z.B. ''mano'' ‘Huhn’).
[[Lehnwort|Lehnwörter]] aus dem [[Sanskrit]] (z.B. ''guru'' ‘Lehrer’) und dem [[Arabische Sprache|Arabischen]] (z.B. ''tala'' ‘Scheidung’) tauchen fast nur in religösen Kontexten auf, sind jedoch seltener als in der Bahasa Indonesia und in der Regel über das Malaiische ins Kaili gelangt. Lehnwörter aus [[Kolonialsprache]]n sind ziemlich selten (vgl. aber z.B. ''sikola'' ‘Schule’).
Nicht [[Affix|affigierte]], [[kontext]]lose Wörter sind oftmals kategorie- und [[Wortart|wortklassenneutral]].

Es gibt keine [[Zähleinheitswort|Zähleinheitswörter]] ([[Classifier]]), keine [[Artikel]] und bis auf einige honorifizierende [[Anredepronomen|Anredepronomina]] und [[Demonstrativpronomen|Demonstrativa]] keine besondere [[Höflichkeitssprache]].

Außer einigen [[Lexikostatistik|lexikostatistischen Vergleichen]] mit Nachbarsprachen (z.B. bei KASENG) gibt es keine eingehenden Studien zur [[Lexik]] des Kaili.

==Schrift==
Eine eigene [[Schrift]] und [[Schrifttradition]] (wie bei einigen Sprachen Süd-Sulawesis, z.B. [[Bugis|Buginesisch]]) hat es im Kaili nicht gegeben. Verwendet wird ausschließlich das [[Lateinalphabet]] ohne Q, X (außer in [[Fremdwort|Fremdwörtern]]) und ohne [[Sonderzeichen]]. 
Die [[Orthographie]] folgt weitestgehend den Regeln der [[Indonesische Sprache|Indonesischen]] Rechtschreibung von 1972:
/{{IPA-Text|tʃ}}/ wird mit C geschrieben, /{{IPA-Text|dʒ}}/ mit J, /{{IPA-Text|j}}/ mit Y,
/{{IPA-Text|ɲ}}/ mit NY, /{{IPA-Text|ŋ}}/ mit NG,
intervokalisches /{{IPA-Text|ʔ}}/ kann bei Bedarf mit ’ wiedergegeben werden, initial ist es vor Vokalen implizit.

In manchen Grammatiken und wissenschaftlichen Publikationen werden Langvokale durch Doppeltschreibung markiert, dies scheint allerdings kein Standard zu sein.

==Beispieltext==
Der Beispieltext ist der Anfang eines Märchens, erzählt 1982 im Ledo-Dialekt.
Die Phrase ''Panguli nu tesa ntotua nggaulu'' ist der typische Märchenanfang, so wie im Deutschen ''Es war einmal...'' 

{| border="0" cellpadding="8" cellspacing="1"
| valign="top" align="justify" width="50%" | Panguli nu tesa ntotua nggaulu, naria vei saito madika nipokononampu noasu. Ane madotamo rarana haumo ia noasu ante tadulakona. Bara santipa sanggani, bara eo-eo. Ane nambela tonji belo norasi, ane nambela tonji da vai, mau valeana ledo naria nikava. (SARO, S. 39)
| valign="top" align="justify" width="50%" | Einer Geschichte (meiner) Eltern von früher zufolge gab es doch einen König, der es wirklich liebte, zu jagen. Wenn der Wunsch aufzubrechen in ihm [wörtl.: in seinem Herzen] aufkam, ging er zusammen mit seinem Gefolge los, um zu jagen. Manchmal einmal in der Woche, manchmal jeden Tag. An guten Tagen hatte er Erfolg, an schlechten Tagen gab es nicht einmal eine Spur zu finden.
|}

{| cellpadding="3"
|''Pa-nguli''||''nu''||''tesa''||''n=totua''||''nggaulu'',
|-
|NMLZ-sagen||SRC||Geschichte||SRC=Eltern||früher
|-
|  
|-
|''naria''||''vei''||''saito''||''madika''||''ni-pokono=na=mpu''||''noasu''.
|-
|sein||AFFIRM||ein||König||PASS.REA-mögen=3SG=AFFIRM||jagen
|-
|  
|-
|''Ane''||''ma-dota-mo''||''rara-na''||''hau-mo''
|-
|Wenn||IRR-Willen-COMPL||Herz-3SG.POSS||gehen-COMPL
|-
|  
|-
|''ia''||''noasu''||''ante''||''tadulako=na''.
|-
|3SG||jagen||mit||Gefolge=3SG.POSS
|-
|  
|-
|''Bara''||''sa-ntipa''||''sa-nggani'',||''bara''||''eo-eo''.
|-
|manchmal||ein-Woche||ein-mal||manchmal||Tag<Redup>
|-
|  
|-
|''Ane''||''nambela''||''tonji''||''belo''||''norasi'',
|-
|Wenn||bekommen||Mal||gut||Ertrag
|-
|  
|-
|''ane''||''nambela''||''tonji''||''da''||''vai'',
|-
|wenn||bekommen||Mal||schlecht||wieder
|-
|  
|-
| ''mau''||''valeana''||''ledo''||''naria''||''ni-kava''.
|-
| sogar||Fährte||NEG||sein||PASS.REA-antreffen
|}

==Forschung==
Teilaspekte des Kaili sind in Ansätzen erforscht. Eine umfassende [[Dokumentation]] oder eine [[Referenzgrammatik]] gibt es jedoch nicht.

==Literatur==
* ESSER, S.J.: Handleiding voor de beoefening der Ledo-taal. Inleiding, Teksten met vertaling en aanteekeningen en woordenlĳst. Bandung: Nix, 1934. (= Verhandelingen van het Koninklĳk Bataviaasch Genootschap van Kunsten en Wetenschappen; Deel LXXII; eerste stuk). 
* EVANS, DONNA: Causation in Kaili. In: STEINHAUER (Hrsg.), S. 173-189. 
* HIMMELMANN, NIKOLAUS P. (1996): Person marking and grammatical relations in Sulawesi. In: STEINHAUER (Hrsg.), S. 115-136. 
* HIMMELMANN, NIKOLAUS P. (2002): Voice in Western Austronesian: AnUpdate. In: WOUK, FAY / ROSS, MALCOLM (Hrsgg.): The history and typology of western Austronesian voice systems. Canberra: Department of Linguistics, Research School of Pacific Studies, The Australian National University, 2002. (= Pacific Linguistics; 518). S. 7-15. 
* HIMMELMANN, NIKOLAUS P. (in Vorb.): Language endangerment scenarios in northern Central Sulawesi. In: Oceanic LInguistics. 
* KASENG, SYAHRUDDIN et al.: Bahasa-Bahasa di Sulawesi Tengah. Jakarta: Pusat Pembinaan dan Pengembangan Bahasa / Departemen Pendidikian dan Kebudayaan, 1979. (= Pusat Pembinaan dan Pengembangan Bahasa; Seri Bb 13). 
* MCGLYNN, JOHN H. et al. (Hrsgg): Indonesian Heritage: Language and Literature. Reprint. Singapore: Archipelago Press, 1999. (= Indonesian Heritage Series; 10). 
* SARO, AHMAD et al.: Struktur Sastra Lisan Kaili. Jakarta: Departemen Pendidikian dan Kebudayaan, 1991. 
* SNEDDON, J[AMES] N[EIL]: Northern Sulawesi. In: Wurm (Hrsg.), Kt. 43. 
* SOFYAN, ANGHUONG ALIAS et al.: Morfologi dan Sintaksis Bahasa Kaili. Jakarta: Pusat Pembinaan dan Pengembangan Bahasa / Departemen Pendidikian dan Kebudayaan, 1979. (= Pusat Pembinaan dan Pengembangan Bahasa; Seri Bb 21). 
* STEINHAUER, HEIN (Hrsg.): Papers in Austronesian Linguistics No. 3. Canberra: Department of Linguistics, Research School of Pacific and Asian Studies, The Australian National University, 1996. (= Pacific Linguistics; A; 84). 
* VAN DEN BERG, RENÉ: The demise of focus and the spread of conjugated verbs in Sulawesi. In: STEINHAUER (Hrsg.), S. 89-114. 
* WURM, STEPHEN A. (Hrsg.): Language Atlas of the Pacific area. Part 2. Japan area, Taiwan (Formosa), Philippines, Mainland and insular South-East Asia. Canberra: Australian Academy of the Humanities, 1983. Kt. 25-47 (= Pacific linguistics; C; 67) 

==Weblinks==
*KAILI, LEDO: a language of Indonesia (Sulawesi) = http://www.ethnologue.com/show_language.asp?code=LEW
*Bahasa Kaili Sudah di Ambang Kepunahan = http://www.kompas.com/kompas-cetak/0211/06/daerah/baha34.htm
*Mencegah Kepunahan Budaya Lokal = http://www.pikiran-rakyat.com/cetak/0304/06/0802.htm

Achtung: [[Ethnologue]] ist manchmal irreführend, die Klassifikation nach Sprachen bzw. Dialekten von [[SIL International]] widerspricht manchmal dem internationalen Konsens in der Sprachwissenschaft und/oder dem Verständnis der Sprecher der betreffenden Sprachen.

[[Category:De]]
[[Category:Single language]]

Kham

2021-01-04T08:09:15Z

Kirk Miller: comment-out useless infobox

{{De}}


'''Kham''' (ISO 639-3: kjl) ist der Name einer Gruppe von Dialekten, die im mittleren Westen Nepals gesprochen werden, und zwar von den nördlichen Clans der Magar (Budha, Pun, Gharti und Rhoka). Die Sprache [[Magar]] wird von den südlichen Clans gesprochen.
Nicht zu verwechseln ist die Sprache der nördlichen Magar mit der tibetischen Region Kham. Dort leben die Khampa, deren Sprache als Khams oder Khampa bezeichnet wird.

Der Dialekt, der in der Grammatik von David E. Watters besprochen wird, heißt Takale Kham (gesprochen im Dorf Taka). Dieser wird auch im Folgenden beschrieben.

== Phonologie ==

=== Tonologie ===
Kham ist eine [[Tonsprache]]. In der Grammatik von David E. Watters sind bei den Beispielen allerdings keine Töne angegeben, deswegen fehlen sie auch bei den Beispielen in diesem Artikel. Es sei auf den Aufsatz ''A Guide to Kham Tone'' von David E. Watters verwiesen (siehe Literatur).

== Morphologie / Morphosyntax ==

=== Substantive ===

==== Numerus ====
Substantive werden flektiert für Singular, Dual und Plural.
Der Singular ist unmarkiert, Dual und Plural sind durch Suffixe markiert.

(1)
{|
|''luhza''||''ka:h-ni''||''lũ:-rə''
|-
|Kind.SG||Hund-DU||Stein-PL
|-
|"ein Kind"||"(zwei) Hunde"||"(viele) Steine"
|}

Anmerkung: Alle Abkürzungen dieser Art finden sich in den [http://www.eva.mpg.de/lingua/files/morpheme.html Leipziger Glossierungsregeln]

Das Pluralsuffix ''-rə'' taucht auch als ''-ra'' auf und zwar immer dann, wenn ein weiteres Suffix folgt:

(2)
{|
|''mi:-ra-sə''
|-
|Person-PL-COM
|}
"mit den Leuten"

===== Plural =====
Dinge, die gewöhnlich nicht einzeln auftreten (typischerweise bestimmte Körperteile wie Augen, Zähne oder Haare) oder von denen man häufig in der Mehrzahl spricht (''"Magst du Kinder?"'') tragen zwar das Pluralsuffix, die Markierung am Verb, die Kongruenz anzeigt, ist allerdings ein Singularsuffix.

(3)
{|
|''har-nwĩ:''||''o-də''||''nə-ha:-rə''||''pal''||''pal-o''||''ta-nya''||''le''
|-
|Kuh-Milch||trinken-NF||2SG.POSS-Zahn-''PL''||weiß||weiß-NML||sein-INF||sein''[-3SG]''
|}
"Du wirst Kuhmilch trinken und deine Zähne werden blendend weiß werden."

(4)
{|
|''za:-rə''||''ma-dəi-wo''
|-
|Kind-''PL''||NEG''[-3SG]''-gebähren-3SG
|}
"Sie hat keine Kinder bekommen."

Der Plural wird aber auch benutzt, um bestimmte Ausdrücke zu verstärken:

(5)
{|
|''ŋa-ŋəih-rə''||''bənəi''||''hur-ke''
|-
|1SG.POSS-Kopf-PL||viel||schmerzen-PFV[-3SG]
|}
"Mein Kopf tut schrecklich weh."

(6)
{|
|''nəm-rə''||''wa-ke''
|-
|Himmel-PL||regnen-PFV
|}
"Es regnet wirklich!" (nicht: "Die Himmel regnen.")

==== Kasus ====

===== Genitiv =====
Der [[Genitiv]] wird durch das Suffix ''-e/-ye'' realisiert und taucht nur an Substantiven und an Pronomen der 3.Person auf.
Er signalisiert verschiedene Abhängikeitsbeziehungen zwischen zwei Substantiven:

MODIFIKATION

(7)
{|
|''sən-e''||''kwa:''
|-
|Wolle-GEN||Kleidung
|}
"wollene Kleidung"

(8)
{|
|''baza-e''||''kər''
|-
|Vogel-GEN||Flügel
|}
"Vogelflügel"

ITERATION

(9)
{|
|''zihm-e''||''zihm''||''zə''||''ta-ke''
|-
|Haus-GEN||Haus||EMP||sein-PFV
|}
"Es gab nichts als Häuser."

POSSESSION (bei Elementen, die von einer 3.Person besessen werden)

(10)
{|
|''ŋa-nəĩ-ye''||''o-re:''
|-
|1SG.POSS-Freund-GEN||3SG-Ehemann
|}
"der Ehemann meines Freundes"

(11)
{|
|''baza-e''||''o-kər''
|-
|Vogel-GEN||3SG-Flügel
|}
"der Flügel des Vogels" (vgl. Modifikation)

Es funktioniert nicht bei Elementen, die von einer 1.oder 2. Person besessen werden:

(12)
{|
|*''ŋa:-ye''||''ŋa-zihm''
|-
|1SG-GEN||1SG-Haus
|}
"mein Haus"

diese Relation wird durch ein freies Pronomen ausgedrückt:

(13)
{|
|''ŋa:''||''ŋa-zihm''
|-
|1SG.NOM||1SG.POSS-Haus
|}
"mein Haus"

===== Instrumental =====
Der [[Instrumental]] wird ebenfalls durch das Suffix ''-e/-ye'' realisiert und markiert belebte und unbelebte Elemente, mit denen ein Agens eine Handlung ausführt.

(14)
{|
|''rowa-e''||''pəl-də''||''dəhləi-ke-o''
|-
|Axt-INS||hacken-NF||fällen-PFV-3SG
|}
"Er fällte es durch das Hacken mit einer Axt."

(15)
{|
|''ao''||''mi:-ye''||''jəi-si-u''
|-
|das||Person-INS||machen-DETR-NML
|}
"Das ist künstlich" (wörtl. "das ist durch eine Person entstanden")

(16)
{|
|''ao''||''məsin-e''||''jəi-si-u''
|-
|das||Maschine-INS||machen-DETR-NML
|}
"Das ist maschinengefertigt."

===== Ergativ =====
Der [[Ergativ]] wird durch das Suffix ''-e/-ye'' realisiert und markiert in transitiven Sätzen (und nur da) das Subjekt. Allerdings nur, wenn es in der 3. Person steht.

INTRANSITIV (es gibt ein Subjekt, aber kein Objekt)

(17)
{|
|''la:''||''si-ke''
|-
|Leopard[ABS]||sterben-PFV[-3SG]
|}
"Der Leopard starb."

TRANSITIV (es gibt ein Subjekt und ein Objekt)

(18)
{|
|''tipəlkya-e''||''la:''||''səih-ke-o''
|-
|Tipalkya-ERG||Leopard[ABS]||[3SG-]töten-PFV-3SG
|}
"Tipalkya tötete den Leoparden."

(19)
{|
|''no:-ye''||''la:''||''səih-ke-o''
|-
|3SG-ERG||Leopard[ABS]||[3SG-]töten-PFV-3SG
|}
"Er tötete den Leoparden."

(20)
{|
|*''ŋa:-ye''||''la:''||''ŋa-səih-ke''
|-
|1SG-ERG||Leopard[ABS]||1SG-[3SG-]töten-PFV
|}
"Ich tötete den Leoparden."

===== Absolutiv =====
Diesen Kasus tragen Objekte transitiver Sätze, die ein Subjekt der 3. Person haben (18). Der Absolutiv wird nicht durch ein Suffix realisiert.

===== Nominativ =====
Diesen Kasus erhalten Subjekte der 1. und 2. Person in transitiven und intransitiven Sätzen. Nominativ wird nicht durch ein bestimmtes Suffix realisiert.

(21)
{|
|''ŋa:''||''la:''||''ŋa-səih-ke''
|-
|1SG[NOM]||Leopard[ABS]||1SG-töten-PFV[-3SG]
|}
"Ich tötete den Leoparden."

===== Objektkasus =====
Da der Nominativ nicht durch ein bestimmtes Suffix realisiert wird (22), muss in transitiven Sätzen, in denen es ein Subjekt der 1. oder 2. Person gibt, das Objekt markiert werden. Dieser Objektkasus wird durch das Suffix ''-lai'' realisiert. Im Deutschen erfüllt diese Funktion (das Objekt transitiver Sätze zu markieren) der Akkusativ. Da im Kham aber auch das Dativ-Objekt den Objektkasus erhält, kann man hier nicht von einem Akkusativ sprechen (siehe ditransitive Verben).

(22)
{|
|''ŋa:''||''no:-lai''||''ŋa-ri:-ke''
|-
|1SG[NOM]||3SG-OBJ||1SG-sehen-PFV
|}
"Ich sah ihn."

(23)
{|
|''ni:''||''ŋa-lai''||''nə-ri:h-na-ke''
|-
|2SG[NOM]||1SG-OBJ||2SG-sehen-1SG-PFV
|}
"Du hast mich gesehen."

=== Verben ===

==== Person- und Numeruskategorien ====
Verben sind für 1., 2. und 3. Person im Singular, Dual und Plural markiert.
Die Kategorien Person und Numerus werden zu einem Morphem zusammengefasst. Eine Ausnahme bildet hier nur die 1. und 2. Person Dual; hier gibt es ein eigenes Personmorphem und ein eigenes Dualmorphem.

Anders als in den meisten tibeto-burmanischen Sprachen gibt es im Kham keine inklusiv/exklusiv-Unterscheidung in der 1. Person Dual und Plural.

(Inklusiv/exklusiv bezieht sich auf den Angesprochenen. Inklusiv schließt den Angesprochenen in das Geschehen ein: ''Wir gehen Eisessen, d.h. du kommst auch mit''; exklusiv schließt den Angesprochenen aus: ''Wir gehen Eisessen, aber ohne dich'').

==== Intransitive und transitive Verben ====
Es gibt zwei grundlegende Typen von Verben, die sich morphologisch unterscheiden.
Verben, die nur ein Argument (Mitspieler) besitzen, nennt man intransitiv (im Deutschen z.B. ''Sie schläft.''/ ''Sie arbeitet.''/ ''Er lacht.''). Dieses einzige Argument wird als S-Argument (Single- bzw. Sole-Argument) bezeichnet und kongruiert in Person und Numerus mit dem Verb. Die Kongruenz ist als Affix am Verb markiert.
1. und 2. Person werden als Präfixe, 3.Person wird als Suffix markiert (3.Person Singular wird nicht markiert).

INTRANSITIV

(24)
{|
|''ŋa:''||''zihm-da''||''ŋa-ba-ke''
|-
|1SG||Haus-ALL||1SG-gehen-PFV
|}
"Ich ging zu dem Haus."

(25)
{|
|''ni:''||''zihm-da''||''nə-ba-ke''
|-
|2SG||Haus-ALL||2SG-gehen-PFV
|}
"Du gingst zu dem Haus."

(26)
{|
|''no:''||''zihm-da''||''ba-ke''
|-
|3SG||Haus-ALL||gehen-PFV[-3SG]
|}
"Er ging zu dem Haus."

(27)
{|
|''no-rə''||''zihm-da''||''ba-ke-rə''
|-
|3-PL||Haus-ALL||gehen-PFV-3PL
|}
"Sie gingen zu dem Haus."

Bei transitiven Verben, die zwei Argumente besitzen, kongruieren beide Argumente in Person und Numerus mit dem Verb. Diese Kongruenz ist ebenfalls durch Affixe markiert.
Die 1. und 2. Person des Subjekts werden als Präfixe, die 3.Person als Suffix markiert. Bei der Markierung des Objekts ist es genau umgekehrt, 1. und 2. Person werden als Suffixe und 3. Person als Präfix markiert (3.Person Singular wird nicht markiert).

TRANSITIVE SUBJEKTE

(28)
{|
|''ŋa:''||''zihm''||''ŋa-jəi-ke''
|-
|1SG||Haus||1SG[-3SG]-machen-PFV
|}
"Ich baute ein Haus."

(29)
{|
|''nĩ:''||''zihm''||''nə-jəi-ke''
|-
|2SG||Haus||2SG-[3SG]-machen-PFV
|}
"Du hast ein Haus gebaut."

(30)
{|
|''no-ra-e''||''zihm''||''jəi-ke-rə''
|-
|3-PL-ERG||Haus||[3SG]-machen-PFV-3PL
|}
"Sie bauten ein Haus."

1.PERSON OBJEKT

(31)
{|
|''no-e''||''ŋa-lai''||''səres-na-ke-o''
|-
|3SG-ERG||1SG-OBJ||erkennen-1SG-PFV-3SG
|}
"Er erkannte mich."

2.PERSON OBJEKT

(32)
{|
|''no-e''||''nĩ:-lai''||''səres-ni-ke-o''
|-
|3SG-ERG||2SG-OBJ||erkennen-2SG-PFV-3SG
|}
"Er erkannte dich."

3.PERSON OBJEKT

(33)
{|
|''no-e''||''no-ra-lai''||''ya-səres-ke-o''
|-
|3SG-ERG||3SG-PL-OBJ||3PL-erkennen-PFV-3SG
|}
"Er erkannte uns."

===== Intransitive Verben =====
Bezüglich der semantischen Rolle des S-Arguments unterscheidet Watters 3 Typen intransitiver Verben:

'''1. Patientive Verben'''

S-Argument = Patiens

(34)
{|
|''ri:h''||''boh-ke''
|-
|Wasser||überlaufen-PFV[-3SG]
|}
"Wasser lief über."

(35)
{|
|''syakəri''||''thĩ:-ke''
|-
|Fleisch||trocknen-PFV[-3SG]
|}
"Das Fleisch trocknete."

Diese Verben bezeichnen Handlungen, die indirekt ausgeführt werden. Das heißt, dem S-Argument passiert die Handlung, es führt sie nicht selbst aus. Aus diesem Grund lässt sich mit patientiven Verben kein [[Imperativ]] bilden:

(36)
{|
|*kha:nike "Verschluck dich!"
|}

{|
|*ŋəhlnike "Schlaf ein!"
|}

Was die jeweilige Handlung verursacht, wird nicht ausgedrückt und spielt auch keine Rolle. Das kann man ändern, indem man patientive Verben kausativiert, d.h. einen Agens einführt (siehe unter Kausativ).

'''2.Agentive Verben'''

S-Argument = Agens

(37)
{|
|''o-za:''||''syã:-ke''
|-
|3SG-Kind||schlafen-PFV[-3SG]
|}
"Das Kind schläft."

Handlungen, die diese Verben bezeichnen werden direkt von dem S-Argument ausgeführt.
Diese Verben lassen sich problemlos in den Imperativ setzen:

(38)

khasinke "Huste!"

syã:nike "Schlaf ein! / Geh schlafen!"

'''3. Meteorologische Verben'''

S-Argument

(39)
{|
|''nəm''||''wa-ke''
|-
|Himmel||regnen-PFV
|}
"Es regnet." (wörtl. "Der Himmel regnet.")

Diese Verben bezeichnen Wettererscheinungen und sonstige Phänomene in der Natur.

=====[[Ambitransitiv]]e Verben=====

Typ S = P

Es gibt eine kleine Klasse von Verben, die sowohl transitiv als auch intransitiv verwendet werden, ohne dass eine morphologische Veränderung stattfindet.
Diese Verben werden ambitransitiv genannt.

INTRANSITIV

(41)
{|
|''gəm''||''gahgəri''||''pa:-ke''
|-
|Lehm||Gefäß||brechen-PFV
|}
"Der Lehmtopf zerbrach." (spontan, einfach so)

TRANSITIV

(42)
{|
|''gəm''||''gahgəri''||''pa:-ke-o''
|-
|Lehm||Gefäß||brechen-PFV-3SG
|}
"Er zerbrach den Lehmtopf." (direkt bzw. mittels eines Instruments)

===== Verben mit [[Medium]]-Morphologie =====
Einige der agentiven und patientiven Verben besitzen ein Suffix ''-si'', welches normalerweise anzeigt, dass die Valenz eines Verbs reduziert wurde. Allerdings gibt es für diese Verben keine Variante ohne Suffix, ''-si'' ist obligatorisch. Diese Verben werden als Deponentien bezeichnet und drücken oft Handlungen aus, die etwas mit (der Veränderung) der Körperhaltung zu tun haben (z.B. ''hinsetzen, stellen, legen'').

(43)
{|
|''cuh-si-ke''
|-
|sitzen-MID-PFV
|}
"Er setzte sich hin."

(44)
{|
|''baza''||''cõ:-ke''
|-
|Vogel||sich.niederlassen-PFV
|}
"Der Vogel ließ sich nieder." (Dieses Verb hat nur diese Bedeutung)

(45)
{|
|*''cuh-ke-o''
|-
|sitzen-PFV-3SG
|}
"Er setzte ihn hin."

==== Ditransitive Verben ====
Ditransitive Verben haben drei Argumente. Es kongruieren aber nur zwei Argumente mit dem Verb, das Subjekt und das Dativ-Objekt. Das Dativ-Objekt ist das Ziel der Handlung und im Kham immer belebt.

(46)
{|
|''no-e''||''ŋa-lai''||''o-bənduk''||''loi-na-ke-o''
|-
|3SG-ERG||1SG-OBJ||3SG.POSS-Gewehr||leihen-1SG-PFV-3SG
|}
"Er lieh mir sein Gewehr."

(47)
{|
|''no-e''||''ŋa-lai''||''ŋa-bənduk''||''los-na-ke-o''
|-
|3SG-ERG||1SG-OBJ||1SG.POSS-Gewehr||borgen-1SG-PFV-3SG
|}
"Er borgte sich mein Gewehr von mir."

Das folgende (ungrammatische) Beispiel zeigt, dass es wirklich einen Unterschied zwischen transitiven und ditransitiven Verben gibt und dass man einer transitiven Konstruktion nicht einfach ein weiteres Argument hinzufügen kann. (Grammatische Variante dieses Beispiels, siehe Benefaktiv (66))

(48)
{|
|*''no-e''||''ŋa-lai''||''o-bənduk''||''sətəĩ-na-ke-o''
|-
|3SG-ERG||1SG-OBJ||3SG.POSS-Gewehr||zeigen-1SG-PFV-3SG
|}
"Er zeigte mir sein Gewehr."

=== Valenzverändernde Konstruktionen ===

==== Kausativ ====
Das Präfix ''sə-'' (mit den Allomorphen ''su-/so-'', bedingt durch [[Vokalharmonie]]) erhöht die Valenz eines Verbs durch die Einführung eines neuen Arguments. Ein intransitives Verb wird transitiv und ist dementsprechend für beide Argumente markiert. Die ersten beiden Beispiele sind die kausativierten Varianten von (34) und (35).

(49)
{|
|''ri:h''||''so-boh-ke-o''
|-
|Wasser||[3SG-]CAUS-überlaufen-PFV-3SG
|}
"Er/Sie ließ das Wasser überlaufen."

(50)
{|
|''syakəri''||''sə-thĩ:-ke-o''
|-
|Fleisch||[3SG-]CAUS-trocknen-PFV-3SG
|}
"Er/Sie trocknete das Fleisch."

(51)
{|
|''o-za:-lai''||''sə-ŋəhl-ke-o''
|-
|3SG-Kind-OBJ||[3SG-]CAUS-einschlafen-PFV-3SG
|}
"Er/Sie ließ das Kind einschlafen."

Im Unterschied zu inhärent transitiven Verben wie z.B. ''hainya'' "herausziehen" (52) wird die Handlung jedoch indirekt verursacht. D.h. das Agens tut etwas (oder tut etwas nicht) und verursacht dadurch eine Handlung an einem Objekt (51).

INHÄRENT TRANSITIV

(52)
{|
|''o-nəĩ-lai''||''kuwa-ni''||''hai-ke-o''
|-
|3SG-Freund-OBJ||Brunnen-ABL||[3SG-]herausziehen-PFV-3SG
|}
"Er zog den Freund aus dem Brunnen."

PATIENTIV

(53)
{|
|''syakəri''||''ci-ke''
|-
|Fleisch||verderben-PFV
|}
"Das Fleisch verdirbt."

KAUSATIVIERT

(54)
{|
|''sapi''||''ma-ja:h-də'',||''syakəri''||''sə-ci-ke-o''
|-
|Salz||NEG-put-NF||Fleisch||CAUS-verderben-PFV-3SG
|}
"Weil sie vergaß das Fleisch zu salzen, wurde es schlecht."

Auch das Wetter oder andere nicht-menschliche Umstände können Handlungen verursachen:

(55)

''nəm nəi sə-zyũ:-h-də gohga su-pu-ke-o''

"Es wurde kalt und dadurch ging das Korn ein."

(56)

''bəĩhcalu hu-də bahrna sə-re:-ke-o''

Ein Erdbeben zerstörte die Mauer.

Diese Kausativderivation funktioniert allerdings nur bei patientiven Verben:

AGENTIV

(57)
{|
|*''o-za:-lai''||''sə-syã:-ke-o''
|-
|3SG-Kind-OBJ||[3SG-]CAUS-schlafen-PFV-3SG
|}
"Er/Sie ließ das Kind schlafen."

Bei der Kausativierung agentiver Verben gibt es auf semantischer Ebene zwei Agentes, nämlich eins, welches bei dem Kind das Schlafen verursacht und das Kind selbst, welches die Handlung des Schlafens ausführt. Das lässt sich im Kham nicht morphologisch ausdrücken, man verwendet stattdessen einen analytischen (oder periphrastischen) Kausativ.
Bei der analytischen Kausativierung wird der ursprüngliche Satz in einen neuen Satz mit dem Verb ''pərĩ:-'' "schicken" eingebettet. Die Valenz des Verbs wird hier nicht verändert.
(Ein Satz S1 kann im Kham in einen anderen Satz S2 eingebettet werden, indem das Verb des Satzes S1 in ein Nomen verwandelt wird.)

(58)
{|
|''o-za:-lai''||''syã:-wo''||''pərĩ:-ke-o''
|-
|3SG-Kind-Obj||schlafen-NML||schicken-PFV-3SG
|}
"Er/Sie schickte das Kind ins Bett." (wörtl. "Er/Sie schickte das Kind zum Schlafen.")

Eine Ausnahme bilden agentive Verben, die etwas mit ''lachen, tanzen, spielen'' zu tun haben. Diese Verben werden morphologisch kausativiert (also durch Präfigierung von ''sə-'') .
Das S-Argument des intransitiven Satzes, welches semantisch gesehen ein Agens ist wird in der kausativierten Variante ein Patiens (sowohl semantisch als auch morphologisch).

INTRANSITIV

(59)
{|
|''baza''||''buhr-ke''
|-
|Vogel||fliegen-PFV[-3SG]
|}
"Der Vogel fliegt."

KAUSATIVIERT

(60)
{|
|''baza-rə''||''ya-sə-buhr-ke-o''
|-
|Vogel-PL||3PL-CAUS-fliegen-PFV-3SG
|}
"Er/Sie verscheuchte die Vögel." (wörtl. "Er/Sie brachte die Vögel zum Fliegen.")

Einige agentive Verben können sowohl morphologisch als auch analytisch kausativiert werden:

(61)
{|
|''kətwalya''||''kih-ke''
|-
|Herold||rufen-PFV[-3SG]
|}
"Der Herold ruft/macht eine Ankündigung."

(62)
{|
|''kətwalya-lai''||''ŋa-sə-kih-ke''
|-
|Herold-OBJ||[3SG-]1SG-CAUS-rufen-PFV
|}
"Ich rufe den Herold."

(63)
{|
|''kətwalya-lai''||''kih-u''||''ŋa-pərĩ:-ke''
|-
|Herold-OBJ||rufen-NML||[3SG-]1SG-schicken-PFV
|}
"Ich ließ den Herold eine Ankündigung machen."

Auch bei transitiven Verben kann die Valenz durch das Präfix ''sə-'' erhöht werden:

(64)
{|
|''no-e''||''o-tathi:''||''ka:h-lai''||''sə-lep-ke-o''
|-
|3SG-ERG||3SG.POSS-Teller||Hund-OBJ||[3SG-]CAUS-lecken-PFV-3SG
|}
"Er ließ den Hund seinen Teller ablecken."

==== Applikativ ====

===== Benefaktiv =====

Mit dem Suffix ''yã:-'', das aus dem Verb "geben" entstanden ist, kann man die Valenz transitiver Verben erhöhen. Aus transitiven Verben werden also ditransitive Verben.

(65)
{|
|''no-e''||''ŋa-lai''||''sətəĩ-na-ke-o''
|-
|3SG-ERG||1SG-OBJ||zeigen-1SG-PFV-3SG
|}
"Er stellte mich vor."

(66)
{|
|''no-e''||''ŋa-lai''||''o-bənduk''||''sətəĩ-d-yã:-ke-o''
|-
|3SG||1SG-Obj||3SG.POSS-Gewehr||zeigen-NF-BEN.APPL.1SG-PFV-3SG
|}
"Er zeigte mir sein Gewehr."

Etwas mit oder an den Dingen einer anderen Person zu tun bedeutet, es zu Gunsten der Person ( = Benefaktiv) oder zu Ungunsten der Person (= Malefaktiv) zu tun und kann nur durch einen Applikativ ausgedrückt werden:

(67)
{|
|''no-e''||''nə-ẽ:h''||''ki:-d-ĩ:-ke-o''
|-
|3SG-ERG||2SG.POSS-Feld||pflügen-NF-BEN.APPL.2SG-PFV-3SG
|}
"Er pflügte dein Feld für dich."

(68)
{|
|*''no-e''||''nə-ẽ:h''||''ki:-ke-o''
|-
|3SG-ERG||2SG.POSS-Feld||[3SG-]pflügen-PFV-3SG
|}
"Er pflügte dein Feld."

=====[[Lokativ-Alternation]]=====

Die beiden Verben ''chərəi'' "spritzen" und ''byal'' "füllen" sind transitiv, haben also jeweils ein A- und ein P-Argument. In der ersten Variante ((69) und (71)) ist das Thema das P-Argument und in der zweiten Variante ((70) und (72)) ist das Ziel der Handlung das P-Argument.

(69)
{|
|''ri:h''||''nam-kə''||''chərəi-ke-o''
|-
|Wasser||Boden-AT||[3SG-]spritzen-PFV-3SG
|}
"Er/Sie spritzte Wasser auf den Boden."

(70)
{|
|''ri:h-ye''||''nam''||''chərəi-ke-o''
|-
|Wasser-INS||Boden||[3SG-]spritzen-PFV-3SG
|}
"Er/Sie bespritze den Boden mit Wasser."

(71)
{|
|''gahgəri-lə''||''ri:h''||''sə-byal-ke-o''
|-
|Krug-IN||Wasser||[3SG-]CAUS-füllen-PFV-3SG
|}
"Er/Sie füllte Wasser in den Krug."

(72)
{|
|''ri:h-ye''||''gahgəri''||''sə-byal-ke-o''
|-
|Wasser-INS||Krug||[3SG-]CAUS-füllen-PFV-3SG
|}
"Er/Sie befüllte den Krug mit Wasser."

==== Detransitivierung ====
Im Kham gibt es ein Detransitivierungssuffix ''-si'', welches aus transitiven Verben intransitive Verben macht.
Diese Derivation führt, abhängig von der semantischen Eigenschaft des Verbs, zu verschiedenen Interpretationen.

(a) Medium

(b) Reflexiv/ Reziprok

(c) 1.Person Passiv.

===== [[Medium]] =====

Ein Agens führt eine Handlung an einem (oft) unbelebten Objekt aus, so dass es einen Nutzen für das Agens hat.

(73)
{|
|''o-ŋəih''||''za-si-ke''
|-
|3SG.POSS-Kopf||waschen-MID-PFV[-3SG]
|}
"Er wusch sich seine Haare." (wörtl. "Er wusch sich seinen Kopf.")

(74)
{|
|''ŋa-cem''||''ŋa-səi-si-ke''
|-
|1SG.POSS-Haare||1SG-kämmen-MID-PFV
|}
"Ich kämme mir meine Haare."

(75)
{|
|''ŋa:''||''ram''||''ŋa-bahl-si-ke''
|-
|1SG||Show[ABS]||1SG-sehen-MID-PFV
|}
"Ich sah mir die Show an."

(76)
{|
|''ram''||''bahl-si-ke''
|-
|Show||sehen-MID-PFV[-3SG]
|}
"Er sah sich die Show an."

===== [[Reflexiv]]/[[Reziprok]] =====

Die Argumente einer Reflexivkonstruktion sind koreferent, d.h. beide Argumente beziehen sich auf dieselbe Person. Aus diesem Grund eignen sich für solche Konstruktionen nur Verben, deren Argumente beide belebt bzw. irgendwie zum Handeln fähig sind (z.B. ''schlagen, sehen, rasieren''). Verben, die sich zur Reflexivierung eignen, eignen sich normalerweise auch zur Reziprokbildung:

REFLEXIV ''Ich kann mich sehen.''

REZIPROK ''Wir können uns (gegenseitig) sehen.''

Aus diesem Grund ist der Numerus des Arguments für die Interpretation entscheidender als die Semantik des Verbs:

(77)
Argument im Singular → Reflexiv

{|
|''səih-si-ke''
|-
|töten-DETR-PFV[-3SG]
|}
"Er tötete sich (selbst)."

(78)
Argument im Plural → Reziprok (oder Reflexiv)

{|
|''səih-si-ke-rə''
|-
|töten-DETR-PFV-3PL
|}
"Sie töteten sich gegenseitig." oder "Sie töteten sich selbst" (= jeder hat sich selbst getötet.)

===== 1.Person Passiv =====

(79)
{|
|''ri:h''||''o-si-ke''
|-
|Wasser||trinken-DETR-PFV[-3SG]
|}
"Wasser wurde getrunken (von mir)."

Dieser Satz erlaubt keine Reflexiv-oder Reziprokinterpretation, weil Agens und Patiens nicht koreferent sein können.
{|
|*"Das Wasser trank sich (gegenseitig)."
|}

Er erlaubt auch keine Mediuminterpretation (a), da diese wie gesehen mit 1SG-Pronomen auftauchen können (b).

(a)
{|
|*"Er trank sich das Wasser"
|}

(b)
{|
|*''ŋa:''||''ri:h''||''ŋa-o-si-ke''
|-
|1SG||Wasser||1SG-trinken-MID-PFV
|}
{|
|*"Ich trank mir das Wasser."
|}

Laut Watters kann es sich bei dem getilgten Argument hier nur um den Sprecher selbst handeln. Diese Konstruktion hat eine pragmatische Funktion, der Sprecher möchte sich ein wenig von der Handlung distanzieren.

Eine ähnliche Konstruktion findet sich im [[Nepali]] (Bandhu 1973). Ein detransitiviertes Verb ist zwar für 3SG flektiert, aber verstanden wird ein Agens der 1SG (auch im Nepali ist 3SG dadurch markiert, dass es keine overte Markierung gibt):

(80)
{|
|''həri-lai''||''kuT-i-io''
|-
|Hari-DAT||schlagen-PASS-PFV
|}
"Hari wurde geschlagen (von mir)."

====Passiv====

Passivierung funktioniert zum größten Teil durch Detransitivierung.

Detransitivierte Verben können wie gesehen verschieden interpretiert werden. Viele der transitiven Verben verlangen ein unbelebtes Element (als Objekt), in diesem Fall führt die Detransitivierung zu einem 1.Person-Passiv (siehe oben)

Im Kham gibt es nur einige wenige Verben, bei denen allein die Suffigierung von ''-si'' zu einer typischen Passivinterpretation führt:

(81)
{|
|''kədəm-nya'' "binden"||→||''kədəm-si-nya'' "gebunden werden"
|-
|''chil-nya'' "zertreten"||→||''chil-si-nya'' "zertreten werden"
|-
|''pi:h-nya'' "(ab)schaben"||→||''pi:h-si-nya'' "abgeschabt werden"
|}

Meistens lässt erst eine Kombination von Detransitivierung und einem weiteren grammatischen Merkmal eine Passivinterpretation zu. (Im Folgenden nur zwei kurze Beispiele zur Illustration. Ausführlicher beschrieben ist dies in Watters 2002.)

(a) "unpersöhnliches" Passiv

Detransitivierte Verben, die in einem perfektiven Kontext (eine Handlung ist abgeschlossen) als Reflexiv, Reziprok oder Medium interpretiert werden können, lassen in einem imperfektiven Kontext eine Passivinterpretation zu:

(82)
{|
|''a-lə''||''cini''||''dəi-si-i''
|-
|hier-in||Zucker||finden-DETR-IMPFV
|}
"Zucker ist hier erhältlich. / Man findet hier Zucker."

(83)
{|
|''giddə''||''syakəri''||''ma-kəi-si-i''
|-
|Geier||Fleisch||NEG-essen-DETR-IMPFV
|}
"Geierfleisch ist ungenießbar. / Man isst kein Geierfleisch."

(b) Passivierung von Reflexiv-und Mediumkonstruktionen

In bestimmten Kontexten können bereits detransitivierte Verben (mit Suffix ''-si'') weiter detransitiviert werden, dazu wird ein weiters si- suffigiert. Konstruktionen mit doppeltem ''-si'' können als 1. Person Passiv oder als unpersöhnliches Passiv interpretiert werden:

(84)
{|
|''gaola''||''jəi-si-si-ke''
|-
|Schäfer||machen-DETR-DETR-PFV
|}
"Ich machte mich selbst zum Schäfer."

(85)
{|
|''ao''||''ma-ja-si-si-i''
|-
|das||NEG-tragen-MID-DETR-IMPFV
|}
"Das ist nicht tragbar." (im Sinne von: Diese Kleidung kann man nicht tragen.)

== Syntax ==

=== Stellung der Satzglieder ===
Die Grundstellung der Satzglieder in Haupt- und Nebensätzen ist AVO, SO.

== Literatur ==
*Watters, David E. 2002. ''A Grammar of Kham''. Cambridge: University Press.
*Payne, Thomas. 2006. ''Voice and Valence''. In: Payne, Th. Exploring language structure: a student's guide. Cambridge: University Press. 237-276
*Watters, David E.1971. ''A Guide to Kham Tone''. Guide To Tone In Nepal,3. Kathmandu: Tribhuvan University and Summer-Institute of Linguistics.

Über die Sprecher des Kham, die Northern-Magar:
*Oppitz, Michael.1987. ''Frau für Fron. Die Dreierallianz bei den Magar West-Nepals''. Frankfurt: Suhrkamp Verlag.

[[Category:De]]
[[Category:Single language]]

Kaili

2021-01-04T08:06:41Z

Kirk Miller: del. empty infobox that makes article look bad

'''Kaili''' (ISO 639-3: lew) ist ein [[Dialektkontinuum]] in der Gruppe der Kaili-Pamona-Sprachen und wird in Zentral-[[Sulawesi]] ([[Indonesien]]) gesprochen. In seiner Gesamtheit ist Kaili eine der größten Mittelsulawesisprachen.

Im Folgenden wird der Hauptdialekt '''Ledo''', wie er im Bezirk (Kabupaten) Donggala und der Provinzhauptstadt Palu verwendet wird, beschrieben.

==Sprachgenealogie==
===Klassifikation===
Die Kaili-Pamona-Sprachen (oder ''westliche [[Torajas|Toraja]]-Sprachen'') gehören zu den Sulawesisprachen, einem Zweig der [[West Malayo-Polynesisch]]en Sprachen in der [[Austronesische Sprachen|austronesischen Sprachfamilie]].

===Geschichte===
Über die frühe [[Sprachgeschichte]] des Kaili ist nicht sehr viel bekannt, da es keine schriftlichen Zeugnisse aus vorkolonialer Zeit gibt.

==Geografische Verteilung==
Kaili wird fast ausschließlich in der Provinz Sulawesi Tengah (Zentral-Sulawesi, [[Indonesien]]) gesprochen. Es gibt aber nennenswerte Gruppen von vorübergehend oder dauerhaft abgewanderten Kaili-Sprechern auf Java in den Städten in Jakarta und Yogyakarta.

===Offizieller Status===
Kaili ist nirgendwo [[Amtssprache]]. Es ist "Regionalsprache" ohne offiziellen Status in der [[Indonesien|Republik Indonesien]].

===Dialekte und Soziolekte===
Es gibt 13 [[Dialekt]]e im Kaili: Rao, Tajio (od. Ajio), Kori, Doi, Unde (od. Ndepu, Undepu), Ledo (od. Palu), Da’a, Inde, Ija, Edo, Ado, Ava, Tara. Nicht alle Dialekte sind untereinander gut verstehbar. Die Namen der Dialekte sind normalerweise das jeweilige [[Schibboleth]] mit der Bedeutung ‘nein, nicht’.
Hauptdialekt und Varietät mit dem höchsten Prestige ist Ledo, das vor allem in der Provinzhauptstadt Palu und dem Umland gesprochen wird; Ledo dient(e) darüber hinaus in weiten Teilen Mittelsulawesis sowie sporadisch in Küstenbereichen und kleinen Inseln des Golfs von Tomini als [[Lingua franca]].

===Sprecherzahlen===
Ledo: 128.000 (Ethnologue, 2006)
Kaili insgesamt: 334.000 (KASENG, 1978) / 290.000 (SNEDDON, 1983) / 233.500 (Ethnologue, 2006) 

1979 war ein Drittel der etwas über 1 Mio. Bewohner der Provinz Sulawesi Tengah [[Muttersprachler]] des Kaili. Heutzutage sind es eine Viertelmillion der über 2,5 Millionen Einwohner).
Beinahe alle Sprecher des Kaili sind mehrsprachig und sprechen zumindest noch [[Indonesische Sprache|Bahasa Indonesia]].

==Sprachsoziologie==
Die staatlichen Zeitungen und die großen Fernsehsender verwenden ausschließlich [[Indonesische Sprache|Bahasa Indonesia]]. Einige private Radiosender senden (zumindest zeitweise) auch auf Ledo. Regionale Verlage bringen vereinzelt Bücher in Kaili heraus, jedoch kaum oder keine Übersetzungen ins Kaili, sondern nur regionale Literatur. Regionale Zeitungen und die wenige nicht-mündliche Literatur sind überwiegend im Ledo-Dialekt. Nationale Fördermittel für derartige regionalsprachlichen Medien scheinen zwar vorhanden aber recht ungleichmäßig (zugunsten Javas und Sumatras) verteilt zu sein.
Die folkloristischen Elemente der oralen Tradition im Kaili (Liedgut, Märchen, Mythen, Dichtung) sind immer noch weitgehend bekannt, auch modernes Kulturschaffen findet teilweise (aber nachlassend) in Kaili statt.
Kaili ist an den allgemeinbildenden Schulen weder als Unterrischtssprache noch als [[Unterricht]]sgegenstand vorgesehen. Bemühungen einiger [[Linguist]]en und [[Pädagoge]]n, Kaili zumindest in der Mittelschule zum Unterrichtsfach zu machen, stoßen bei Verwaltung und Bevölkerung gleichermaßen auf Indifferenz und Desinteresse.

Die ''Universitas Tadulako'' in Palu führt zwar ein Kaili-Wort im Namen, hat aber als staatliche Institution ausschließlich Bahasa Indonesia als Amts- und Unterrichtssprache. Es gibt aber Abteilungen für Linguistik, für Literaturwissenschaft und für die Lehrerausbildung, die sich u.a. mit Kaili beschäftigen.

=== Linguistisches Ungleichgewicht ===
====Stadt – Land====
In den Großstädten wirkt sich die Transmigrasi-Politik Suhartos aus. Es gibt viele Menschen deren Muttersprache eine andere Regionalsprache ist. Gegenüber diesen wird Bahasa Indonesia verwendet. Oftmals entstehen so bi- bzw. trilinguale Familien, in denen dann stets Bahasa Indonesia oder [[Betawi]]/Jakarta-Indonesisch die „Verkehrssprache“ ist. Im tieferen Hinterland ist Kaili jedoch nach wie vor die Hauptsprache, oft auch die einzige Sprache. Hier gibt es überwiegend monolinguale Familien (Kaili) und nur in seltenen Fällen Mischfamilien, in denen hauptsächlich Bahasa Indonesia gesprochen wird.

====Generationenfrage====
Die sehr Alten (Kindheit bis 1930er Jahre) sind oft noch einsprachig in Kaili Die Generationen, die seit der Unabhängigkeit (1945) aufgewachsen sind, sind in der Regel zweisprachig (Bahasa Indonesia und Kaili), wobei sie im Elternhaus Kaili und in der Schule/im Beruf Bahasa Indonesia gelernt haben bzw. verwenden. Die jüngsten Generationen ([[Spracherwerb]] seit den 1980er Jahren) sind zumeist auch im Elternhaus schon mit Bahasa Indonesia als Erstsprache aufgewachsen und haben Kaili – wenn überhaupt – nur sporadisch gelernt (nur passive Kenntnisse), es gibt eine ganze Generation von [[Halbsprecher]]n, die weder in Kaili noch in Bahasa Indonesia eine lückenlose Kompetenz haben.

====Domänen====
In der Schule, im Berufsleben und im Umgang mit Behörden ist die Verwendung der Bahasa Indonesia Pflicht. Unter den Schülern (auch wenn sie alle Kaili sprechen) wird daher auch privat meist Bahasa Indonesia verwendet.
Im semiformellen und familiären Umfeld (auch z.B. beim Einkauf in den kleineren privaten Läden) wird Kaili verwendet, wenn alle Gesprächsteilnehmer Kaili verstehen und sprechen können. Außerhalb der Provinz Sulawesi Tengah wird Kaili allenfalls als eine Art [[Geheimsprache|Geheim]- oder [[Gruppensprache]] oder verwendet.

====Prestige====
Je nach Situation kann eine gute Kompetenz in Kaili (insbesondere „gepflegtem Ledo“) auch als ein positives Gut angesehen werden. Normalerweise wird aber eher Wert auf eine gute Beherrschung der Bahasa Indonesia gelegt, die in Schule und Beruf Erfolg verheißender ist. Kaili wird als Kulturgut empfunden, dessen alltäglicher Nutzwert gegen Null strebt, sobald man die Region verlässt.

===Bedrohungssituation===
Mit einer (noch) sechsstelligen Sprecherzahl scheint Kaili vordergründig nicht akut gefährdet zu sein. Die Entwicklung der letzten 60, insbesondere aber der letzten 20 Jahre lässt jedoch ahnen, dass die Sprache auf Dauer dem Druck der Bahasa Indonesia nicht gewachsen sein wird. Da Kaili seit Jahrhunderten eine wichtige [[Lingua franca]] in der Region ist und auch die Sprache der im Bezirk Donggala politisch wie ökonomisch dominierenden Bevölkerung, übt es seinerseits permanent Druck auf kleinere Sprachen der Region aus. Die Bedeutung des Kaili als [[Verkehrssprache]] lässt jedoch nach, in diese [[Domäne]] dringt Bahasa Indonesia geplant vor. Für die Situation des Kaili selbst gibt es noch keine detaillierten Untersuchungen, vgl. aber HIMMELMANN (in Vorb.) für die benachbarten [[Tolitoli-Tomini-Sprachen]], die von Regionalsprachen, darunter Kaili, „bedrängt“ werden.

==Phonetik und Phonologie==
Lautinventar und Silbenstruktur des Kaili sind typisch für die Sprachgruppe und die Region: Sie sind recht überschaubar und wenig komplex. Es gibt keine seltenen oder komplizierten [[Laute]], gewöhnungsbedürftig für [[deutsch]]e Muttersprachler ist lediglich, dass /[[Stimmhafter velarer Nasal|{{IPA-Text|ŋ}}]]/ auch am [[Silbe]]n- und [[Wort]]anfang stehen kann.

===Konsonanten===
{| {{Prettytable}}
! rowspan="2" |  
! colspan="2" style="background-color:#FFDEAD" | [[bilabial]]
! colspan="2" style="background-color:#FFDEAD" | [[labiodental|labio- dental]]
! colspan="2" style="background-color:#FFDEAD" | [[alveolar]]
! colspan="2" style="background-color:#FFDEAD" | [[postalveolar|post- alveolar]]
! colspan="2" style="background-color:#FFDEAD" | [[palatal]]
! colspan="2" style="background-color:#FFDEAD" | [[velar]]
! colspan="2" style="background-color:#FFDEAD" | [[glottal]]
|- style="text-align:center"
| style="width:1.7em; background-color:#FFDEAD" | [[Stimmlosigkeit|stl.]]
| style="width:1.7em; background-color:#FFDEAD; text-align:center" | [[Stimmhaftigkeit|sth.]]
| style="width:1.7em; background-color:#FFDEAD; text-align:center" | stl.
| style="width:1.7em; background-color:#FFDEAD; text-align:center" | sth.
| style="width:1.7em; background-color:#FFDEAD; text-align:center" | stl.
| style="width:1.7em; background-color:#FFDEAD; text-align:center" | sth.
| style="width:1.7em; background-color:#FFDEAD; text-align:center" | stl.
| style="width:1.7em; background-color:#FFDEAD; text-align:center" | sth.
| style="width:1.7em; background-color:#FFDEAD; text-align:center" | stl.
| style="width:1.7em; background-color:#FFDEAD; text-align:center" | sth.
| style="width:1.7em; background-color:#FFDEAD; text-align:center" | stl.
| style="width:1.7em; background-color:#FFDEAD; text-align:center" | sth.
| style="width:1.7em; background-color:#FFDEAD; text-align:center" | stl.
| style="width:1.7em; background-color:#FFDEAD; text-align:center" | sth.
|-
! style="background-color:#FFDEAD; text-align:left" | [[Plosiv]]e
| style="text-align:center" | [[Stimmloser bilabialer Plosiv|{{IPA-Text|p}}]]
| style="text-align:center" | [[Stimmhafter bilabialer Plosiv|{{IPA-Text|b}}]]
|  
|  
| style="text-align:center" | [[Stimmloser alveolarer Plosiv|{{IPA-Text|t}}]]
| style="text-align:center" | [[Stimmhafter alveolarer Plosiv|{{IPA-Text|d}}]]
|  
|  
|  
|  
| style="text-align:center" | [[Stimmloser velarer Plosiv|{{IPA-Text|k}}]]
| style="text-align:center" | [[Stimmhafter velarer Plosiv|{{IPA-Text|g}}]]
| style="text-align:center" | [[Stimmloser glottaler Plosiv|{{IPA-Text|ʔ}}]]
| style="background-color:#D8D8D8" |  
|-
! style="background-color:#FFDEAD; text-align:left" | [[Nasal (Phonetik)|Nasal]]e
|  
| style="text-align:center" | [[Stimmhafter bilabialer Nasal|{{IPA-Text|m}}]]
|  
|  
|  
| style="text-align:center" | [[Stimmhafter alveolarer Nasal|{{IPA-Text|n}}]]
|  
|  
|  
| style="text-align:center" | [[Stimmhafter palataler Nasal|{{IPA-Text|ɲ}}]]
|  
| style="text-align:center" | [[Stimmhafter velarer Nasal|{{IPA-Text|ŋ}}]]
| style="background-color:#D8D8D8" |  
| style="background-color:#D8D8D8" |  
|-
! style="background-color:#FFDEAD; text-align:left" | [[Vibrant]]en
|  
|  
|  
|  
|  
| style="text-align:center" | [[Stimmhafter alveolarer Vibrant|{{IPA-Text|r}}]]
|  
|  
|  
|  
| style="background-color:#D8D8D8" |  
| style="background-color:#D8D8D8" |  
| style="background-color:#D8D8D8" |  
| style="background-color:#D8D8D8" |  
|-
! style="background-color:#FFDEAD; text-align:left" | [[Frikativ]]e
|  
|  
|  
| style="text-align:center" | [[Stimmhafter labiodentaler Frikativ|{{IPA-Text|v}}]]
| style="text-align:center" | [[Stimmloser alveolarer Frikativ|{{IPA-Text|s}}]]
|  
|  
|  
|  
|  
|  
|  
| style="text-align:center" | [[Stimmloser glottaler Frikativ|{{IPA-Text|h}}]]
|  
|-
! style="background-color:#FFDEAD; text-align:left" | [[Affrikate]]n
|  
|  
|  
|  
|  
|  
| style="text-align:center" | [[Stimmlose postalveolare Affrikate|{{IPA-Text|tʃ}}]]
| style="text-align:center" | [[Stimmhafte postalveolare Affrikate|{{IPA-Text|dʒ}}]]
|  
|  
|  
|  
|  
|  
|-
! style="background-color:#FFDEAD; text-align:left" | [[Approximant]]en
|  
| style="text-align:center" | [[Stimmhafter labiovelarer Approximant|{{IPA-Text|w}}]]
|  
|  
|  
|  
|  
|  
|  
| style="text-align:center" | [[Stimmhafter palataler Approximant|{{IPA-Text|j}}]]
|  
|  
| style="background-color:#D8D8D8" |  
| style="background-color:#D8D8D8" |  
|-
! style="background-color:#FFDEAD; text-align:left" | laterale Approximanten
| style="background-color:#D8D8D8" |  
| style="background-color:#D8D8D8" |  
| style="background-color:#D8D8D8" |  
| style="background-color:#D8D8D8" |  
|  
| style="text-align:center" | [[Stimmhafter lateraler alveolarer Approximant|{{IPA-Text|l}}]]
|  
|  
|  
|  
|  
|  
| style="background-color:#D8D8D8" |  
| style="background-color:#D8D8D8" |  
|}

===Vokale===
{| {{Prettytable}}
| rowspan="2" |  
! colspan="2" style="background-color:#FFDEAD" | vorne
! colspan="2" style="background-color:#FFDEAD" | zentral
! colspan="2" style="background-color:#FFDEAD" | hinten
|- style="text-align:center"
| style="width:2em; background-color:#FFDEAD" | [[Rundung (Phonetik)|ung.]]
| style="width:2em; background-color:#FFDEAD" | [[Rundung (Phonetik)|ger.]]
| style="width:2em; background-color:#FFDEAD" | ung.
| style="width:2em; background-color:#FFDEAD" | ger.
| style="width:2em; background-color:#FFDEAD" | ung.
| style="width:2em; background-color:#FFDEAD" | ger.
|-
! style="background-color:#FFDEAD; text-align:left" | geschlossen
| style="text-align:center" | [[Ungerundeter geschlossener Vorderzungenvokal|{{IPA-Text|i}}]]
|  
|  
|  
|  
| style="text-align:center" | [[Gerundeter geschlossener Hinterzungenvokal|{{IPA-Text|u}}]]
|-
! style="background-color:#FFDEAD; text-align:left" | halbgeschlossen
| style="text-align:center" | [[Ungerundeter halbgeschlossener Vorderzungenvokal|{{IPA-Text|e}}]]
|  
|  
|  
|  
| style="text-align:center" | [[Gerundeter halbgeschlossener Hinterzungenvokal|{{IPA-Text|o}}]]
|-
! style="background-color:#FFDEAD; text-align:left" | mittel
|  
|  
| colspan="2" style="text-align:center" | [[Schwa|{{IPA-Text|ə}}]]
|  
|  
|-
! style="background-color:#FFDEAD; text-align:left" | offen
| style="text-align:center" | [[Ungerundeter offener Vorderzungenvokal|{{IPA-Text|a}}]]
|  
|  
|  
|  
|  
|}

Vor /a/, /i/, /j/ werden /i/, /e/, /o/, /a/ [[palatal]]isiert gesprochen, vor /u/, /w/ werden /u/, /e/, /i/, /a/ [[labial]]isiert gesprochen.

Alle [[Vokale]] gibt es als Lang- und Kurzvokale.

===Silbenstruktur===
Nicht-affigierte Wörter haben 1-4 (überwiegend 2) offene Silben aus einem [[Konsonanten]] und einem [[Vokal]]. 
Es gibt - typisch für Sprachen dieser Region - keine Konsonantenverbindungen ([[Cluster]]), die über zwei Konsonanten hinaus gehen.

===Betonung===
Betonung ([[Wortakzent]]) spielt im Kaili offenbar keine bedeutungsunterscheidende Rolle.
Der Hauptakzent liegt auf der [[Penultima]] (vorletzte [[Silbe]], von dort aus gibt es abwechselnd unbetonte Silben und Silben mit [[Nebenakzent]]en.

Kaili ist keine [[Tonsprache]].

==Grammatik==
Kaili ist eine typische [[Malayo-Polynesische_Sprachen|malaio-polynesische Sprache]], deren [[Morphologie]] [[Isolierender Sprachbau|isolierende]], aber auch einige [[Agglutinierender Sprachbau|agglutinierend]]e Charakteristika aufweist.
Sie verfügt über eine Vielzahl von [[Affix]]en für die [[Derivation]] und [[Flexion]]. [[Substantiv]]e und [[Adjektiv]]e haben keinerlei Flexion.
Es gibt prinzipiell keine [[Genus|Genera]], keine [[Numerus|Numeri]] oder [[Kasus]]. (Natürliches) Geschlecht und Anzahl werden bei Bedarf lexikalisch ausgedrückt, semanto-syntaktische Rollen durch syntaktische Position und Verbflexion markiert. [[Komparation]] und [[Gradation]] funktionieren teilweise morphologisch, teilweise lexikalisch.

Der [[Satzbautyp]] ist überwiegend SOV, die Sprache hat ausschließlich [[Präposition]]en.

===Morphologie===
Die [[Morphologie]] des Kaili ist im Wesentlichen die [[Konjugation]] des [[Verb (de)|Verbs]] sowie [[Wortbildung]] durch [[Komposition (Grammatik)|Komposition]] und [[Reduplikation (Sprache)|Reduplikation]].

====Affigierung====
=====[[Präfix]]e (Auswahl)=====

{| cellpadding="5"
| {''na-''}/{''ne-''}/{''no-''}|| [[Realis]], [[Durativ]]
|-
| ''dau – nodau''||‘nähen’ – ‘nähend’ (am nähen)
|-
| ''kande – nangande''||‘essen’ – ‘essen(d)’
|-
| ''sakaya – nosakaya''||‘Boot’ – ‘ein Boot besitzen’
|-
| ''sikola – nosikola''||‘Schule’ – ‘zur Schule gehen’
|-
| ''gasa – nagasa''||‘sauber’ - ‘sauber sein’
|-
|  
|-
| {''ma-''}/{''me-''}/{''mo-''} ||[[Irrealis]], [[Habituativ]], etc.
|-
| ''tua – matua'' ||‘alt’ – ‘alt werden, altern’
|-
| ''ruma – meruma''||‘Haus’ – ‘bewohnen, hausen’
|-
| ''kande – mangande''||‘essen’ – ‘essen(d)’
|-
| ''sangu – mosangu''||‘eins’ – ‘vereinen’
|-
| ''jarita – mojarita''||‘reden’ – ‘(be)sprechen’
|-
| ''tora – motora''||‘Wunsch’ – ‘wünschen’
|-
|  
|-
| {''ni-''}||[[Passiv]]/[[Objektfokus]] 
|-
| ''keni – nikeni''||‘tragen’ – ‘getragen’
|-
|  
|-
| {''nu-''}||[[Demonstrativ]] 
|-
| ''banua – nubanua/nubunua''||‘Haus’ – ‘dieses Haus’
|-
|  
|-
| {''ka-''}||‘für’, [[Ordinalzahl]] 
|-
| ''ngana – kangana''||‘Kind’ – ‘für das Kind, Kinder-’
|-
| ''sangu – kasangu''||‘eins’ – ‘erste(s/r)’
|-
|  
|-
| colspan="2" | {''pa-''}/{''pe-''}/{''po-''}
|-
| colspan="2" | a) [[Kausativ]]/[[Faktitiv]]
|-
| ''sangu – pasangu''||‘eins’ – ‘vereinen’
|-
| colspan="2" | b) Nomen Agentis, Nomen Instrumenti, Nomen Loci
|-
| ''jarita – pajarita''||‘reden’ – ‘Erzähler, Sprecher’
|-
| ''turu – paturu''||‘schlafen’ –‘ Schlafstatt’
|-
|  
|-
| {''popo-''}||[[Transitiv]]ierung + [[Kausativ]]/[[Faktitiv]]
|-
| ''berei – popoberei''||‘Ehegatte/-in’ – ‘heiraten’
|-
| ''tumangi – popotumangi''||‘weinen’ – ‘zum Weinen bringen’
|-
| ''(ng)ana – popoana''||‘Kind’ – ‘schwängern’
|-
|  
|-
| {''si-''}||‘gemeinsam’, [[Komitativ]] 
|-
| ''tuvu – sintuvu''||‘leben’ - ‘zusammen leben’
|-
|  
|-
| {''ti-''}/{''te-''}||‘unbeabsichtigt, unwillkürlich’
|-
| ''navu – tinavu''||‘fallen’ – ‘zusammenbrechen’
|-
| ''turu – teturu''||‘schlafen’ – ‘wegdämmern’
|}

=====[[Suffix]]e (Auswahl)=====

{| cellpadding="5"
| {''-a''}||‘viel(e)’, ‘Abstraktum’
|-
| ''talu – talua''||‘gärtnern’ – ‘Garten, Parkanlage’
|-
| ''kande – kandea''||‘essen’ – ‘Essen’, auch: ‘Reis’
|-
| ''savi – savia''||‘fahren’ – ‘Fahrzeug’
|-
| ''bulu – bulua''||‘Körperhaar’ – ‘Haupthaar’
|-
|  
|-
| {''-si''}||‘Grund’, ‘Ursprung’, [[Faktitiv]]
|-
| ''toro – torosi''||‘genesen – ‘Medizin’
|-
| ''mate – matesi''||‘tot’ – ‘töten’
|-
| ''lai – laisi''||‘gehen’ – ‘kommen von’
|-
| ''dua – duasi''||‘krank’ – ‘krank machen(d)’
|-
|  
|-
| {''-pa''}||‘Versuch’ 
|-
| ''kande – kandepa''||‘essen’ – ‘probieren, anbeißen’
|-
| ''epe – epepa''||‘hören’ – ‘versuchen zuzuhören’
|}

=====[[Zirkumfix]]e (Auswahl)=====
{| cellpadding="5"
| {''pa- -a''}||‘Ort’
|-
| ''turu – paturua''||‘schlafen’ – ‘Schlafstatt’
|-
|  
|-
| {''ka- -a''}||‘Zustand, Abstraktum’
|-
| ''pande – kapandea''||‘geschickt’ – ‘Geschicktheit’
|-
|  
|-
| {''na- -i''}/{''ma- -i''}||‘anwenden’
|-
| ''talinga – nantalingai''||‘Ohr’ – ‘zuhören’ (vgl. dt. ''ein Ohr leihen'') 
|-
| {''nomba- -i''}||‘versehen mit’ ([[Ornativ]])
|-
| ''vatu – nombavatui''||‘Stein’ – ‘pflastern, mauern’
|-
| {''nosi- -si''}||‘einander, [[reziprok]]’
|-
| ''dua – nosiduasi''||‘krank’ – ‘einander anstecken’
|}

=====[[Infix]]e (Auswahl)=====
Die Infixe sind durchweg linksperiphär. Sie können nur nach dem ersten Konsonanten einer wortinitialen Silbe eingefügt werden: 

{| cellpadding="5"
|{''-in-''}||‘Ergebnis’
|-
| ''sole – sinole''||‘braten’ – ‘Gebratenes’
|-
| ''talu – tinalu''||‘gärtnern’ –‘ Garten’
|-
|  
|-
| {''-um-''}||‘anwenden’
|-
| ''somba – sumomba''||‘Segel’ – ‘segeln’
|-
| ''tangi – tumangi''||‘Träne’ – ‘weinen’
|-
|  
|-
| {''-imb-''}||‘Ergebnis, Folge’
|-
| ''tala – timbala''||‘Scheidung’ – ‘Geschiedene(r)’
|-
|  
|-
| {''-il-''}||‘Absicht’ 
|-
| ''hau – hilau''||‘gehen’ – ‘gehen wollen’
|}

=====Beispiele für komplexe Affigierung=====
Die folgenden zwei "[[Wort|Wörter]]" sind ein Beispiel für ([[Agglutinierender Sprachbau|Agglutination]]) im Kaili 

{| cellpadding="5"
| ''nipokononampu''
|-
| ni-pokono=na=mpu
|-
| PASS.REA-mögen=3SG=AFFIRM
|-
| ‘[es] wird von ihm wirklich gerne getan’
|}

{| cellpadding="5"
| ''damonosipopasumoa''
|-
| da-mo-nosi-po-pa-s<um>oa
|-
| übrig_bleiben-IRR-RECP-Mittel-CAUS-<VBLZR>Kraft
|-
| ‘übrig bleibt wohl [bloß] einander ein Mittel zum Kraft schöpfen zu sein’ 
bzw. ‘man kann bloß noch einander Kraft geben’
|}

====[[Reduplikation]]====
Volle Reduplikation 

{| cellpadding="5"
| ''bongi – bongi-bongi''||‘Nacht’ – ‘nächtens / jede Nacht’
|-
| ''eo – eo-eo''||‘Tag’, ‘Sonne’ – ‘täglich / jeden Tag’
|-
| ''(ng)ana – ngana-ngana''||‘Kind’ – ‘(viele) Kinder’
|-
| ''sakide – sakide-sakide''||‘wenig’ - ‘(ganz) wenig’
|}

Partielle Reduplikation 
{| cellpadding="5"
| ''randua – randua-ndua''||‘zwei’ – ‘paarweise’
|}

Affigierte Reduplikation 
{| cellpadding="5"
| ''ngaya – pengaya-ngaya''||‘Sorte’ – ‘vielerlei’
|-
| ''kande – pangande-ngandemo''||‘essen’ – ‘herumprobieren’
|-
| ''tora – metora – metora-tora''||‘Wunsch‘ –‘wünschen’ – ‘ersehnen’
|-
| ''sangu – sumangu-mangu''||‘eins’ – ‘das Ganze (als Einheit)’
|}

====Komposition====
[[Komposition (Grammatik)|Komposita]] bleiben – obwohl untrennbare Einheiten mit oftmals idiosynkratischen [[Bedeutung]]en – bis auf sehr wenige Ausnahmen [[Orthographie|orthographisch]] getrennt:

{| cellpadding="5"
| ''banua vatu''||‘Steinhaus’ (‘Haus’ + ‘Stein’)
|-
| ''dua rara''||‘Liebeskummer’ (‘Krankheit’ + ‘Herz’)
|-
| ''(ng)ana guru''||‘Schüler’ (‘Kind’ + ‘Lehrer’)
|-
| ''lili ntiku''||‘umgeben’ (‘herum’ + ‘herum’)
|-
| ''tadulako''||‘Gefolgsmann, Soldat’ (''tadu'' ‘Ferse’ + ''lako'' ‘gehen’)
|-
| ''royomata''||‘schläfrig’ (''royo'' ‘offenhaltenmüssen’ + ''mata'' ‘Auge(n)’)
|}

In einigen Fällen gibt es Reduktion oder Assimilation:
{| cellpadding="5"
| ''totua'' ‘Eltern(teil)’||''tona'' ‘Mensch’+ ''tua'' ‘alt’
|-
| ''alampale'' ‘zusammenarbeiten’||''ala'' ‘nehmen’ + ''pale'' ‘Hand’
|}

===verbale Kategorien===
Die Flexion der [[Verb (de)|Verben]] (besser: [[Prädikative]]) im Kaili ist geprägt durch die zwei wichtigen Kategorien [[Modus]] und [[Genus Verbi]], die miteinander durch [[Fusion|fusion]]ierte [[Affixe]] verbunden sind. Es gibt neben dem eigentlichen Verbalgenus eine Reihe weiterer valenzbezogener Funktionen, z.B. den Faktitiv. Klitische Personalendungen gibt es nur für direkte Objekte bzw. Handlungsträger in Passiv- und Kausativsätzen.

====Modus====
Die Modalaffixe werden bei ESSER (1934) quasi als Unterscheidung [[Nichtfutur]]/[[Futur]] beschrieben, jedoch werden Zeitverhältnisse und -stufen eher lexikalisch ausgedrückt. Es handelt sich bei der vorliegenden Kategorie insofern weniger um ein [[Tempus]] als vielmehr um eine Art [[Modus (Grammatik)|Modus]], bei denen der Realis für (faktische) Handlungen in Gegenwart und Vergangenheit verwendet wird, während der Irrealis einerseits für zukünftige, andererseits (zeitstufenunabhängig) für vermutete, potentielle, fiktive oder inexistente (VAN DEN BERG: „contrafactual“) Handlungen benutzt wird.

Die [[Allomorph]]e ''{na-}~{ne-}~{no-}'' markieren den [[Realis]], die Allomorphe ''{ma-}~{me-}~{mo-}'' den [[Irrealis]], wobei das Auftreten des jeweiligen Allomorphs vor einem Stamm eine Art [[Flexionsklasse]] konstituiert. 
In Einzelfällen kann ein Stamm mit allen drei Allomorphen verbunden werden, wodurch die Bedeutung jeweils modifiziert wird:

{| cellpadding="5"
| colspan="3" | z.B. ''kande'' ‘essen’
|-
| Realis || Irrealis ||  
|-
| ''na-ngande''||''ma-ngande''||‘essen’ (tr.)
|-
| ''ne-kande''||''me-kande''||‘einschneiden/einfressen in’ (itr.)
|-
| ''no-kande-si''||''mo-kande-si''||‘jemandem etwas wegessen’
|}

====Verbalgenus====
Die Unterscheidung zwischen den zwei morphologisch sichtbaren [[Diathese|Verbaldiathesen]] wird entweder als Fokus mit den einzigen beiden Ausprägungen Agensfokus und Objektfokus oder aber als Genus Verbi mit der Unterscheidung Aktiv/Passiv beschrieben, was passender ist, wenn man die Fokusdefinition HIMMELMANNs zugrunde legt.

{| cellpadding="5"
|-
|   || Realis || || || || ||Irrealis|| || || ||
|-
| Aktiv || (1a) ''Yaku'' || ''na-ngande''||''loka''||''riava''.|| ||(1b) ''Ia''||''ma-ngande''||''loka''||''haitu.''
|-
|   ||1SG||REA-essen||Banane||gestern|| ||3 SG||IRR-essen||Banane||DEM
|-
|  
| colspan="4" | ‘Ich aß gestern [die] Banane(n).’
|  
| colspan="4" | ‘Er wird [wohl] [die] Banane(n) essen.’
|-
| Passiv || (1c) ''Ni-kande=ku''||''loka''||''riava.''|| ||||  (1d) ''Ra-kande=na''||''loka''||''haitu.''||
|-
|   || PASS.REA-essen=1SG||Banane||gestern|| || ||PASS.IRR-essen=3SG||Banane||DEM|| 
|-
|  
| colspan="4" | ‘[Die] Banane(n) wurde(n) gestern von mir gegessen.’
|  
| colspan="4" | ‘[Die] Banane[n] werden [wohl] von ihm gegessen.’
|}

====Andere valenzbezogene Mechanismen====
Transitivierungen, Faktitiv- oder Kausativableitungen dienen der Valenzerweiterung oder der Verschiebung von Argumenten in die Subjektsposition. Ich möchte hier nur einige Beispiele anführen, die typologisch interessant sind.

[[Transitiv]]ierung 
Intransitive Verben können mit {''po-''} transitiviert werden, wobei das S des intransitiven Verbs nicht zum A, sondern zum O des transitiven Verbs wird (verkappter [[Kausativ]]): 
{| cellpadding="5"
|(2a)||''Mano''||''na-tuwu.''
|-
|   ||Huhn||REA-leben
|-
|   ||colspan="2"| ‘Die Hühner leben.’
|}
{|
| (2b)||''I''||''Esa''||''nom-pa-tuwu''||''mano.''
|-
|   ||PM||Esa||REA-TR-leben||Huhn
|-
|   || colspan="4" | ‘Esa züchtet Hühner.’
|}

[[Kausativ]] 
Wird {''po-''} ein zweites Mal angefügt, so kann das transitivierte Verb um einen Kausativ erweitert werden. Historisch gesehen besteht {''popo-''} also aus zwei identischen Morphemen, aber es gibt auch Verben, bei denen es keine „Zwischenform“ gibt, in der nur ein {''po-''}steht. 

{| cellpadding="5"
| (3a)|| ''No-berei-mo''||''i''||''Dula.''
|-
|   || REA-Gatte-COMPL||PM||Dula
|-
|   || colspan="3" | ‘Dula ist verheiratet’
|}
{|
| (3b) ||''I''||''Dula''||''no-berei''||''nte''||''i''||''Ani''.
|-
|   ||PN||Dula||REA-Gatte||mit||PM||Ani
|-
|  || colspan="6" |‘Dula heiratet Ani.’
|}
{|
| (3c)||''Ia''||''nom-po-berei''||''i''||''Ani.''
|-
|   ||3SG||REA-TR-Gatte||PM||Ani
|-
|   || colspan="4" | ‘Dula heiratet Ani.’
|}
{|
| (3d) ||''Totua-na''||''ni-po-po-berei''||''ia.''
|-
|   ||Eltern-3SG||PASS.REA-CAUS-TR-Gatte||3SG
|-
|   || colspan="3" | ‘Seine Eltern haben ihn verheiratet.’
|}

{| cellpadding="5"
| (4a)||''I''||''Ni''||''no-tulisi''||''sura.''
|-
|  ||PN|| Ni||REA-schreiben|| Brief
|-
|  || colspan="3" | ‘Ni schreibt [einen] Brief.’
|}

{| cellpadding="5"
| (4b)|| ''Yaku''||''nom-popo-tulisi''||''i''||''Ni''||''sura''
|-
|   || 1SG||REA-CAUS-schreiben||PN||Ni||Brief
|-
|   || colspan="5" | ‘Ich lasse Ni einen Brief schreiben.’
|}

{| cellpadding="5"
| (4c)||''I''||''Ni''||''ni-popo-tulisi=ku''||''sura.''
|-
|   ||PN||Ni||PASS.REA-CAUS-schreiben=1SG||Brief
|-
|   || colspan="4" | ‘Ni wird von mir veranlasst, einen Brief zu schreiben.’
|}

{| cellpadding="5"
| (4d)||''Sura''||''ni-popo-tulisi=ku''||''i''||''Ni.''
|-
|   || Brief||PASS.REA-schreiben=1SG||PN||Ni
|-
|   || colspan="4" | ‘Den Brief habe ich durch Ni schreiben lassen.’
|}

Daneben gibt es aber auch eine (fragliche) Kausativkonstruktion (EVANS: „requestive”) mit ''{peki-}~{meki-}~{neki-}'' (vgl. [[Tagalog]] {''paki''-} ‘bitte’), die semantisch eine Rolle (Causer) hinzufügt, syntaktisch aber valenzreduzierend ist, da der Causee nur in einer Präpositionalphrase ausgedrückt wird bzw. zumeist weggelassen wird. 

{| cellpadding="5"
| (5a)||''I''||''Tira''||''no-dau''||''baju''.
|-
|   ||PM||Tira||REA-nähen||Kleid
|-
|   || colspan="4" | ‘Tira näht Kleider/ein Kleid.’
|}

{|
| (5b)||''Yaku''||''meki-dau''||''baju''.
|-
|   ||1SG||REQ.IRR-nähen||Kleid
|-
|   ||colspan="3" | ‘Ich möchte ein Kleid nähen lassen.’
|}

{| cellpadding="5"
| (5c)||''Yaku''||''mom-peki-dau''||''baju''||''nte''||''Tira''
|-
|   || 1SG||IRR-REQ-nähen||Kleid||mit||Tira
|-
|   ||colspan="5" | ‘Ich möchte/werde [mir] von Tira ein Kleid nähen lassen.’
|}

{| cellpadding="5"
| (6a)||''Ia''||''nom-paka-belo''||''dua=ra''
|-
|   ||3SG||REA-CAUS-gut||Krankheit=3PL
|-
|   ||colspan="3" | ‘Er heilt ihre Krankheit(en).’
|}

{| cellpadding="5"
| (6b)||''Ira''||''nom-peki-paka-belo''||''dua=ra''
|-
|   ||3PL||REA-REQ-CAUS-gut||Krankheit=3PL
|-
|   ||colspan="3" | ‘Sie baten ihn, ihre Krankheit(en) zu heilen.’
|}

===Syntax===
Der Grundsatz, dass der Kopf einer [[Phrase (Linguistik)|Phrase]] vor dem Rest steht (''[[Regens]] vor [[Rectum]]''), gilt für [[Kompusitum|Komposita]], [[Phrase]]n und [[Satz|Sätze]] gleichermaßen. 
Grundstellung der [[Satzglied]]er ist SVO oder VOS. 

Eine obligatorische [[Kopula]] gibt es nicht. In [[Passiv]]sätzen kann die [[Handlungsträger]]bezeichnung klitisch an das Verb heran treten, das Subjekt des Passivsatzes kann vor oder nach dem Verb stehen. 

{| cellpadding="5"
| (7)||''sakaya''||''mbaso''
|-
|   || Boot||groß
|-
|   || N||Adj
|-
|   ||colspan="2" |‘(das/ein) große(s) Boot’, auch: ‘das Boot ist groß’
|}

{| cellpadding="5"
| (8)||''banua''||''geira''
|-
|   || Haus ||3PL
|-
|   || N||Gen 
|-
|   ||colspan="2" | ‘ihr Haus’
|}

{| cellpadding="5"
| (9)||''Kaluku''||''hai''||''nalanga.''
|-
|   ||Kokospalme||DEM||REA:hoch_sein
|-
|   || N||Dem|| 
|-
|   ||colspan="3" | ‘Diese Kokospalme ist hoch.’
|}

{| cellpadding="5"
| (10a)||''Yaku''||''noriapu''||''uta''.
|-
|   || 1SG||REA:kochen||Gemüse
|-
|   || S||V||O
|-
|   ||colspan="3" | ‘Ich koche Gemüse.’
|}
{| cellpadding="5"
| (10b)||''Noriapuku''||''uta'' 
|-
|   || REA:kochen:1SG||Gemüse
|-
|   || V:S||O
|-
|   ||colspan="2" | ‘Ich koche Gemüse.’
|}

{| cellpadding="5"
| (11a)||''Tuamaku''||''hau''||''ri''||''talua.''
|-
|   || Vater:1SG||REA:gehen||in||Garten
|-
|   ||colspan="4" | ‘Mein Vater geht in den Garten.’
|}
{| cellpadding="5"
| (11b)||''Hau''||''ri''||''talua''||''tuamaku.''
|-
|   ||REA:gehen||in||Garten||Vater:1SG
|-
|   ||colspan="4" | ‘Mein Vater geht in den Garten.’
|}

{| cellpadding="5"
| (12a)|| ''I''|| ''mange''||''nangali''||''bengga.''
|-
|   || PM|| Onkel|| kaufen|| Büffel
|-
|   ||colspan="s"| S ||V||O
|-
|   ||colspan="4" | ‘Der Onkel kauft (einen) Büffel.’
|}
{| cellpadding="5"
| (12b)|| ''Ningali'' ||''bengga.''
|-
|   || PASS.REA:kaufen|| Büffel
|-
|   || V || S
|-
|   ||colspan="2" | ‘Büffel werden verkauft/zu verkaufen.’
|}
{| cellpadding="5"
| (12c) ||''Bengga''|| ''ningali.''
|-
|   || Büffel||PASS.REA:kaufen
|-
|   || S||V
|-
|   || colspan="2" | ‘Büffel werden verkauft/zu verkaufen.’
|}

{| cellpadding="5"
| (13) || ''Tona''|| ''hai''|| ''ledo''|| ''nangande''|| ''kandea.''
|-
|   ||Mensch||DEM||NEG||REA:essen||Reis.
|-
|   ||N||Dem||Neg||V|| 
|-
|   ||colspan="5" |‘Dieser Mensch isst keinen Reis.’
|}

{| cellpadding="5"
| (14a)||''Langgai''||''haitu''||''no-boba''||''i''||''Tira.''
|-
|   ||Mann||DEM||REA-schlagen||PN||Tira
|-
|   ||colspan="5" |‘Dieser Mann schlug Tira
|}
{| cellpadding="5"
| (14b)||''Yaku''||''nang-gita''||''langgai''||''no-boba''||''i''||''Tira.''
|-
|   ||1SG||REA-sehen||Mann||REA-schlagen||PM||Tira
|-
|   ||colspan="6" |‘Ich sehe den Mann, der Tira geschlagen hat.’
|}

==Wortschatz==
Das Kaili kann seine Lage und seine Verwandtschaft nicht verheimlichen: Es gibt unzählige West-Malayo-Polynesische [[Erbwort|Erbwörter]] (Kognate), vor allem natürlich mit benachbarten Sprachen Sulawesis (z.B. ''loka'' ‘Banane’), darüber hinaus aber auch mit dem [[Malaiische Sprache|Malaiischen]] (z.B. ''mate'' ‘tot’) und mit Philippinensprachen (z.B. ''mano'' ‘Huhn’).
[[Lehnwort|Lehnwörter]] aus dem [[Sanskrit]] (z.B. ''guru'' ‘Lehrer’) und dem [[Arabische Sprache|Arabischen]] (z.B. ''tala'' ‘Scheidung’) tauchen fast nur in religösen Kontexten auf, sind jedoch seltener als in der Bahasa Indonesia und in der Regel über das Malaiische ins Kaili gelangt. Lehnwörter aus [[Kolonialsprache]]n sind ziemlich selten (vgl. aber z.B. ''sikola'' ‘Schule’).
Nicht [[Affix|affigierte]], [[kontext]]lose Wörter sind oftmals kategorie- und [[Wortart|wortklassenneutral]].

Es gibt keine [[Zähleinheitswort|Zähleinheitswörter]] ([[Classifier]]), keine [[Artikel]] und bis auf einige honorifizierende [[Anredepronomen|Anredepronomina]] und [[Demonstrativpronomen|Demonstrativa]] keine besondere [[Höflichkeitssprache]].

Außer einigen [[Lexikostatistik|lexikostatistischen Vergleichen]] mit Nachbarsprachen (z.B. bei KASENG) gibt es keine eingehenden Studien zur [[Lexik]] des Kaili.

==Schrift==
Eine eigene [[Schrift]] und [[Schrifttradition]] (wie bei einigen Sprachen Süd-Sulawesis, z.B. [[Bugis|Buginesisch]]) hat es im Kaili nicht gegeben. Verwendet wird ausschließlich das [[Lateinalphabet]] ohne Q, X (außer in [[Fremdwort|Fremdwörtern]]) und ohne [[Sonderzeichen]]. 
Die [[Orthographie]] folgt weitestgehend den Regeln der [[Indonesische Sprache|Indonesischen]] Rechtschreibung von 1972:
/{{IPA-Text|tʃ}}/ wird mit C geschrieben, /{{IPA-Text|dʒ}}/ mit J, /{{IPA-Text|j}}/ mit Y,
/{{IPA-Text|ɲ}}/ mit NY, /{{IPA-Text|ŋ}}/ mit NG,
intervokalisches /{{IPA-Text|ʔ}}/ kann bei Bedarf mit ’ wiedergegeben werden, initial ist es vor Vokalen implizit.

In manchen Grammatiken und wissenschaftlichen Publikationen werden Langvokale durch Doppeltschreibung markiert, dies scheint allerdings kein Standard zu sein.

==Beispieltext==
Der Beispieltext ist der Anfang eines Märchens, erzählt 1982 im Ledo-Dialekt.
Die Phrase ''Panguli nu tesa ntotua nggaulu'' ist der typische Märchenanfang, so wie im Deutschen ''Es war einmal...'' 

{| border="0" cellpadding="8" cellspacing="1"
| valign="top" align="justify" width="50%" | Panguli nu tesa ntotua nggaulu, naria vei saito madika nipokononampu noasu. Ane madotamo rarana haumo ia noasu ante tadulakona. Bara santipa sanggani, bara eo-eo. Ane nambela tonji belo norasi, ane nambela tonji da vai, mau valeana ledo naria nikava. (SARO, S. 39)
| valign="top" align="justify" width="50%" | Einer Geschichte (meiner) Eltern von früher zufolge gab es doch einen König, der es wirklich liebte, zu jagen. Wenn der Wunsch aufzubrechen in ihm [wörtl.: in seinem Herzen] aufkam, ging er zusammen mit seinem Gefolge los, um zu jagen. Manchmal einmal in der Woche, manchmal jeden Tag. An guten Tagen hatte er Erfolg, an schlechten Tagen gab es nicht einmal eine Spur zu finden.
|}

{| cellpadding="3"
|''Pa-nguli''||''nu''||''tesa''||''n=totua''||''nggaulu'',
|-
|NMLZ-sagen||SRC||Geschichte||SRC=Eltern||früher
|-
|  
|-
|''naria''||''vei''||''saito''||''madika''||''ni-pokono=na=mpu''||''noasu''.
|-
|sein||AFFIRM||ein||König||PASS.REA-mögen=3SG=AFFIRM||jagen
|-
|  
|-
|''Ane''||''ma-dota-mo''||''rara-na''||''hau-mo''
|-
|Wenn||IRR-Willen-COMPL||Herz-3SG.POSS||gehen-COMPL
|-
|  
|-
|''ia''||''noasu''||''ante''||''tadulako=na''.
|-
|3SG||jagen||mit||Gefolge=3SG.POSS
|-
|  
|-
|''Bara''||''sa-ntipa''||''sa-nggani'',||''bara''||''eo-eo''.
|-
|manchmal||ein-Woche||ein-mal||manchmal||Tag<Redup>
|-
|  
|-
|''Ane''||''nambela''||''tonji''||''belo''||''norasi'',
|-
|Wenn||bekommen||Mal||gut||Ertrag
|-
|  
|-
|''ane''||''nambela''||''tonji''||''da''||''vai'',
|-
|wenn||bekommen||Mal||schlecht||wieder
|-
|  
|-
| ''mau''||''valeana''||''ledo''||''naria''||''ni-kava''.
|-
| sogar||Fährte||NEG||sein||PASS.REA-antreffen
|}

==Forschung==
Teilaspekte des Kaili sind in Ansätzen erforscht. Eine umfassende [[Dokumentation]] oder eine [[Referenzgrammatik]] gibt es jedoch nicht.

==Literatur==
* ESSER, S.J.: Handleiding voor de beoefening der Ledo-taal. Inleiding, Teksten met vertaling en aanteekeningen en woordenlĳst. Bandung: Nix, 1934. (= Verhandelingen van het Koninklĳk Bataviaasch Genootschap van Kunsten en Wetenschappen; Deel LXXII; eerste stuk). 
* EVANS, DONNA: Causation in Kaili. In: STEINHAUER (Hrsg.), S. 173-189. 
* HIMMELMANN, NIKOLAUS P. (1996): Person marking and grammatical relations in Sulawesi. In: STEINHAUER (Hrsg.), S. 115-136. 
* HIMMELMANN, NIKOLAUS P. (2002): Voice in Western Austronesian: AnUpdate. In: WOUK, FAY / ROSS, MALCOLM (Hrsgg.): The history and typology of western Austronesian voice systems. Canberra: Department of Linguistics, Research School of Pacific Studies, The Australian National University, 2002. (= Pacific Linguistics; 518). S. 7-15. 
* HIMMELMANN, NIKOLAUS P. (in Vorb.): Language endangerment scenarios in northern Central Sulawesi. In: Oceanic LInguistics. 
* KASENG, SYAHRUDDIN et al.: Bahasa-Bahasa di Sulawesi Tengah. Jakarta: Pusat Pembinaan dan Pengembangan Bahasa / Departemen Pendidikian dan Kebudayaan, 1979. (= Pusat Pembinaan dan Pengembangan Bahasa; Seri Bb 13). 
* MCGLYNN, JOHN H. et al. (Hrsgg): Indonesian Heritage: Language and Literature. Reprint. Singapore: Archipelago Press, 1999. (= Indonesian Heritage Series; 10). 
* SARO, AHMAD et al.: Struktur Sastra Lisan Kaili. Jakarta: Departemen Pendidikian dan Kebudayaan, 1991. 
* SNEDDON, J[AMES] N[EIL]: Northern Sulawesi. In: Wurm (Hrsg.), Kt. 43. 
* SOFYAN, ANGHUONG ALIAS et al.: Morfologi dan Sintaksis Bahasa Kaili. Jakarta: Pusat Pembinaan dan Pengembangan Bahasa / Departemen Pendidikian dan Kebudayaan, 1979. (= Pusat Pembinaan dan Pengembangan Bahasa; Seri Bb 21). 
* STEINHAUER, HEIN (Hrsg.): Papers in Austronesian Linguistics No. 3. Canberra: Department of Linguistics, Research School of Pacific and Asian Studies, The Australian National University, 1996. (= Pacific Linguistics; A; 84). 
* VAN DEN BERG, RENÉ: The demise of focus and the spread of conjugated verbs in Sulawesi. In: STEINHAUER (Hrsg.), S. 89-114. 
* WURM, STEPHEN A. (Hrsg.): Language Atlas of the Pacific area. Part 2. Japan area, Taiwan (Formosa), Philippines, Mainland and insular South-East Asia. Canberra: Australian Academy of the Humanities, 1983. Kt. 25-47 (= Pacific linguistics; C; 67) 

==Weblinks==
*KAILI, LEDO: a language of Indonesia (Sulawesi) = http://www.ethnologue.com/show_language.asp?code=LEW
*Bahasa Kaili Sudah di Ambang Kepunahan = http://www.kompas.com/kompas-cetak/0211/06/daerah/baha34.htm
*Mencegah Kepunahan Budaya Lokal = http://www.pikiran-rakyat.com/cetak/0304/06/0802.htm

Achtung: [[Ethnologue]] ist manchmal irreführend, die Klassifikation nach Sprachen bzw. Dialekten von [[SIL International]] widerspricht manchmal dem internationalen Konsens in der Sprachwissenschaft und/oder dem Verständnis der Sprecher der betreffenden Sprachen.

[[Category:De]]
[[Category:Single language]]

Hadza

2020-10-20T22:44:16Z

Kirk Miller: /* Orthography */

{{InfoboxLanguage
|Language = Hadza
|Autonym = ''Haza, hazane''
|Pronunciation = ɦad͜za
|Ethn15name = Hadza
|Countries = Tanzania
|OfficialLg = none
|OLACname = Hadza
|WALSLoc = 3°45′ S, 35°10′ E
|Speakers = 1,000
|Family = [[isolate]]
|Genus = Hadza
|WritingSyst = none
|ISO3 = hts
}}

Hadza is a language isolate of Tanzania.

=== Location and Speakers ===
Hadza is spoken along the entire eastern shore of alkaline Lake Eyasi, which lies at the base of the Serengeti Plateau in central Tanzania, from Mount Oldeani in the north (just south of Ngorongoro Crater) to the Isanzu agricultural areas in the south. The Hadza do not live at altitudes much above 1500 meters, as they do not build shelters that will ward off the night chill at higher elevations.

There is a small population of Hadza to the west of the lake, in ''Dunduhina'' /duƞtuhina/<ref>This article uses the old IPA letter for a moraic nasal, ⟨ƞ⟩, which was retired because it has no specific phonetic value. In Hadza, the moraic nasal is homorganic with a following consonant.</ref> 'Sukumaland', but their number seems to be decreasing and many only speak Sukuma and Swahili.

There are approximately 1,000 speakers of Hadza, most now bilingual in Swahili. Other second languages include [[Isanzu]] in the south, [[Sukuma]] in the west, and to a lesser degree [[Datooga]] in the center (e.g. near the Yaeda Valley to the southeast of the lake) and [[Iraqw]] on the margins of the Iraqw highlands. The northern Hadza area, around the town of Mangola, was largely monolingual until the introduction of Standard Swahili after independence, though there are loanwords from colonial-era 'upcountry' Swahili.

As of 2005, about 40% of Hadza lived as full-time hunter-gatherers, and language transmission was robust in the areas east of the lake, but since then there have been reports of children speaking Swahili east of the lake, perhaps due to the influx of ''Dunduhinabee'' abandoning their territory in the west.

=== Classification ===
Hadza is a [[language isolate]]. Greenberg classified it as [[Khoisan]] due to its use of [[click consonant]]s. If it were not for the clicks, it's likely that Hadza would have been classified as [[Cushitic]]. Hadza and Sandawe have very similar phonetic inventories and phonotactics, suggesting an old sprachbund. However, the only detected commonalities in vocabulary are old Cushitic loans or perhaps loans that passed from one to the other through Cushitic. Much of the borrowed Cushitic vocabulary is consistent with reconstructions of proto-West Rift.

=== Dialects ===
There do not appear to be any dialects of Hadza, presumably due to the mobility of its speakers. There are some regional differences of vocabulary, however, and speakers note that many more Bantu loans are used in the south.

=== Name ===
"Hadza" is the most common name in the literature. ''Haza'' /ɦad͜za/ simply means 'human being'. The derivative "Hadzane" (/ɦad͜zane/ 'in the manner of the people') is sometimes encountered as the name of the language. The feminine plural ''hazabee'' /ɦad͜zabeʔe/ may be used for the people, though it is usually spelled "Hadzabe" due to devoicing of the final vowel. (The feminine is the inclusive gender in the plural.) "Hadzapi" is the masculine-plural copular form ''hazaphii'' /ɦad͜zapʰiʔi/. "Hatza" and "Hatsa" are older German spellings.

"Tindiga" is from the Swahili name, ''watindiga'' 'people of the marsh grass', presumably named for the large spring in Mangola. The forms ''wahadza'', ''kihadza'' are found instead of ''watindiga'', ''kitindiga'' in recent Swahili publications, but the Hadza do not consider ''watindiga'' to be pejorative. "Kindiga" may be a cognate from one of the local Bantu languages. "Kangeju" (pronounced ''Kangeyu'') is an obsolete German name of unclear origin. The name "Wahi" (pronounced ''Vahi'') found for the western Hadza in Kohl-Larsen is a Sukuma name for the Hadza.

=== Orthography ===
Hadza does not have a written tradition. Two orthographies have seen recent use: the phonetic transcription of Tucker, Bryan & Woodburn (1977), used with some modification by Woodburn and other anthropologists, and the practical orthography of Anyawire et al. (2013). As it is based on the IPA, the Woodburn transcription is more accessible to linguists, while the Anyawire orthography is closer to Sandawe and other written languages of Tanzania. There is evidently some political controversy over the choice of orthography, with Hadza reporting they have been told that if they use the Anyawire orthography they will loose their land. There are two motivations for the Anyawire orthography: the perception that the IPA click letters of the Woodburn transcription portray the Hadza language as bizarre, when the Hadza people already have difficulties with being marginalized and a perception that they are not proper human beings, and the practical issue that the ubiquitous apostrophe of the Woodburn transcription makes it impractical for extended use. The apostrophes are generally omitted by those Hadza who have learned the Woodburn system, with the resulting texts often being unintelligible even to their authors; when the apostrophes are written, they greatly slow down the pace of writing. In the Anyawire orthography, doubled consonants are used for glottalized/ejective consonants and doubled vowels for glottal stop, with the apostrophe only being used for the Swahili convention of ⟨ngʼ⟩ for borrowed /ŋ/.

The Anyawire orthography is used alongside the IPA in this article for accessibility with the Anyawire dictionary. For clarity, an apostrophe will be retained in this article for glottal stop between unlike vowels, e.g. ⟨ae⟩ /ae/ vs ⟨aʼe⟩ /aʔe/. In practice, the Hadza are more likely to write an epenthetic glide between vowels in hiatus, e.g. ⟨aye⟩ for /ae/ vs ⟨ae⟩ for /aʔe/.

=== Phonology ===
Hadza syllable structure is limited to CVN in native words. There are no vowel-initial roots, unless ''h'' is analyzed as an allophone of zero. Syllable-coda N surfaces as a homorganic nasal when a following consonant has a place of articulation for it to assimilate to, and as nasalization of the vowel before a glottal consonant (glottal stop and ''h''/zero) and pre-pausa. Coda N also appears allophonically before voiced nasal and glottalized nasal clicks. A moraic (syllabic?) nasal is also found word-initially in loans from Bantu and Datooga, in which case it may have a different pitch than the following vowel, or may be preceded by an epenthetic vowel; such nasals are analyzed here as NCV sequences rather than as a series of prenasalized consonants. Phonetically, initial #NCV may also occur when the initial hV syllable of a #hVC₂V-shaped word is elided and C₂ is a glottalized nasal click.

==== Stress and tone ====
Salient stress and pitch is not restricted to a particular syllable; its position may vary between elicitations of a word pronounced in isolation. There are no known minimal pairs, grammatical or lexical, for stress or tone. Minimal pairs claimed in the literature have turned out to either not be distinct or to not be minimal pairs (e.g., one may have an additional morpheme such as the habitual suffix ''-e'', which frequently reduces to vowel length). It may be that some loanwords retain their tone from their source language.

==== Vowels ====
There are five phonemic vowels, which are close to cardinal [a e i o u].

{| class="wikitable" style=text-align:center
|+Hadza vowels
| style="background: white" |
! Front
! Central
! Back
|-
! High
| i || || u
|-
! Mid
| e || || o
|-
! Low
| || a ||
|}

Phonetic nasal vowels, which are not common except before a consonant, are here analyzed as /VN/.

Phonetic long vowels are often sequences, as in ''kaha'' [kaː] ~ [kaɦa] 'to climb'. In some words, however, there is no allomorph with [ɦ], as in ''bôko'' [boːko] 'she' (forms a minimal pair with ''boko'' [boko] 'to be ill'). There is no known minimal set to establish long /Vː/ as distinct from a /VV/ sequence.

The mid vowels /e, o/ tend to rise when a high vowel, /i, u/, occurs in the following syllable, and /e, o/ may merge with /i, u/ in that position. However, such assimilation tends to be optional, even in suffixed pronouns such as ''onebii'' [ʔone̝biʔi] ~ ''unibii'' [ʔunibiʔi] 'we' (masculine, inclusive).

/u/ is relatively uncommon except in loans or due to vowel-height assimilation, and does not occur in grammatical morphemes unless the morpheme has a second syllable with vowel /i/.

Vowels tend to devoice in pre-pausa position after a voiceless consonant. In the highly frequent pattern of word-final -V₁ʔV₁ (where the two vowels are the same, a pattern found in half of all grammatical suffixes and clitics though not frequently elsewhere), the vowel and preceding glottal stop tend to elide completely when pre-pausa, and either elide or reduce to a long vowel before a suffix/clitic or another word.

==== Consonants ====
Hadza has at least 50 productive syllable onsets and several other marginal consonants.

{| class="wikitable" style=text-align:center
|+Principal Hadza consonants (Parentheses: loans. Dark background: may follow a nasal coda.)
! rowspan=2 colspan=2 |
! rowspan=2 | Labial
! rowspan=2 colspan=2 | (Denti-) alveolar
! rowspan=2 | (Post-) alveolar
! rowspan=2 | Palatal
! colspan=2 | Post-velar
! rowspan=2 | Glottal/ placeless
|- class=small
! plain
! labialized
|-
! rowspan=4 | Click
! Aspirated
|
| colspan=2 style="background: silver" | ǀʰ
| style="background: silver" |ǃʰ
| style="background: LightGray" |ǁʰ
| colspan=3 rowspan=4 style="background: white" |
|-
! Tenuis
|
| colspan=2 style="background: silver" | ǀ
| style="background: Gainsboro" |ǃ
| style="background: Gainsboro" |ǁ
|-
! Voiced nasal
|
| colspan=2 | ⁿǀ
| ⁿǃ
| ⁿǁ
|-
! Glottalized nasal
|
| colspan=2 | ⁿǀˀ
| ⁿǃˀ
| ⁿǁˀ
|-
! rowspan=5 | Plosive / affricate
|-
! Ejective
| pʼ
| colspan=2| t͜sʼ
| t͜ʃʼ
| c͜ʎ̥˔ʼ
| k͜xʼ
| k͜xʷʼ
| style="background: white" |
|-
! Aspirated
| style="background: silver" |pʰ
| style="background: silver" |tʰ
| style="background: silver" |t͜sʰ
| style="background: silver" |t͜ʃʰ
| c͜ʎ̥˔ʰ
| style="background: silver" |kʰ
| style="background: silver" |kʷʰ
|
|-
! Tenuis
| style="background: silver" |p
| style="background: silver" |t
| style="background: silver" |t͜s
| style="background: silver" |t͜ʃ
| c͜ʎ̥˔
| style="background: silver" |k
| style="background: silver" |kʷ
| style="background: silver" |ʔ
|-
! Voiced
| b
| (d)
| (d͜z)
| (d͜ʒ)
|
| (ɡ)
| (ɡʷ)
| style="background: white" |
|-
! colspan=2| Nasal
| m
| colspan=2| n
| colspan=2| (ɲ)
| (ŋ)
| (ŋʷ)
| //ƞ//
|-
! colspan=2 | Fricative
| (fʷ)
| ɬ
| s
| ʃ
|
|
|
|
|-
! colspan=2 | Sonorant
|
| colspan=2 | ɺ
|
| j
|
| w
| style="background: silver" | ɦ (zero?)
|}

Consonants in parentheses are thought to be loans, though the voiced obstruents at least are well-integrated and may be spreading to native roots.

Consonants with a medium grey background may follow a coda nasal in the preceding syllable (that is, they may be C₂ in a CVNCV pattern), whereas those on the lightest grey background may not. Alveolar /ǃ/ and lateral /ǁ/ (medium light grey) are not attested in this environment. However, it is suspected these gaps may be accidental, given that only two roots are known with dental /ǀ/ as C₂ after a nasal coda and that these sequences have not yet been investigated in the field. Moreover, the one known case of aspirated lateral /ƞǁʰ/, though it was clear when elicited, needs to be confirmed with additional speakers. A word with that sequence reported in Tucker, Bryan & Woodburn could not be confirmed by Anyawire et al.

The voice-onset time of consonants is reduced after a nasal coda: [[tenuis]] consonants may be partially or completely voiced, and the aspiration of aspirated consonants may be reduced or lost. This is true of clicks as well as of plosives and affricates, and is reflected in both orthographies. A /b/~/p/ distinction has not been found in post-nasal position despite /b/ being native.

Aspiratation may only be distinct in the first several syllables of a word. Many speakers distinguish aspirated plosives in only a few words, but maintain a robust aspiration distinction in affricates and clicks. The reason for this asymmetry is unknown.

The glottalized nasal clicks surface as e.g. [ǃʔ] post-pausa and often as [ŋ͡nʔǃ] intervocalically. Accounts differ as to whether there is voiceless nasal airflow in post-pausa position.

Aspirated clicks may have a delayed and clearly audible posterior release, e.g. [ǃʰ] ~ [ǃkʰ]. The audible release has the same post-velar articulation as the k-series of plosives.

The alveolar clicks tend to be weakly articulated, though, so far as is known, not slapped as has been reported from Sandawe and evidently erroneously reported for Hadza. When intervocalic, nasal alveolar /ⁿǃ/ may surface as, or nearly as, a doubly articulated pulmonic nasal [ŋ͡n]. The lateral clicks, on the other hand, are typically quite salient, and such phonetic reduction has not be noted.

Among the ejectives, /pʼ/ is uncommon. Most of the others vary between affricate and fricative realizations. Fricative allophens [sʼ, ʃʼ, xʼ, xʷʼ] have been noted for /t͜sʼ, t͜ʃʼ, k͜xʼ, k͜xʷʼ/. Velar /k͜xʼ/ and /k͜xʷʼ/ also have plosive allophones, [kʼ, kʷʼ], and at least /k͜xʼ/ has a lateral allophone [k͜ʟ̝̊ʼ]. Ejective /t͜sʼ/ may correspond to both the alveolar plosive and affricate (/t/ and /t͜s/) series of pulmonic consonants.

The palatal lateral affricates may be pronounced with an alveolar onset, e.g. [t͜ʎ̥˔], or without involving the front of the tongue, e.g. [c͜ʎ̥˔]. Speakers express no preference when hearing these articulations. The fricative /ɬ/, however, is alveolar; a palatal articulation is not accepted. Given that the fricative may be pronounced as an affricate in some prosodic situations, this means that there is a three-way phonetic place contrast among laterals: [t͜ɬ] vs [t͜ʎ̥˔ ~ c͜ʎ̥˔] and [t͜ʎ̥˔ʼ ~ c͜ʎ̥˔ʼ] vs [k͜ʟ̝̊ʼ].

/ɺ/ is typically realized as [l] post-pausa and [ɾ] elsewhere, though [ɺ] is not uncommon in either position. It tends toward [l] when it occurs as both C1 and C2, as in /ɺoɺa/ (sp. rabbit).

[ɦ] and zero may be allophones. If so, and given that vowel-initial suffixes and clitics may elide a stem-final vowel, it would be simplest to posit that the phoneme is zero and that [ɦ] an allophone of zero, rather than that /ɦ/ is elided under some conditions. A predictive conditioning environment for the presence or absence of [ɦ] has not been discovered, but prosody may play a role; even vowel-initial suffixes and clitics may be realized with an initial [ɦ] when given contrastive prosody. Assimilation or bilingualism may be involved in the case of loanwords. For instance, an Isanzu loan for 'snake' was recorded as ''ihato'' /ʔiɦato/ at the beginning of the 20th century (and perhaps in an Isanzu-biligual area) but as ''iyato'' /ʔiato/ at the beginning of the 21st century in Mangola.

The glides /j/ and /w/ are not distinctive next to high front /i/ and back /u/, respectively, and rarely (or uncertainly) distinctive next to mid front /e/ and back /o/. It is possible that medial ''y'' and ''w'' are phonemically /i/ and /u/ and that initial ''y'' and ''w'' are /ʔi/ and /ʔu/. When they occur word-initially, purported /jV, wV/ often appear as [ʔijV] and [ʔuwV]. This is true even of a ubiquitous sequential auxiliary (''yamo'' [jamo] ~ ''iamo'' [ʔiamo] in the 3msg posterior (past?) tense). /j/ does however occur in two object suffixes. In the anthropological and linguistic literature, glides are often written between unlike vowels. For example, the 3msg non-past copula clitic ''-ha'' /ɦa/ is often transcribed as ''ya'' after a front vowel and as ''wa'' after a back vowel.

===== Marginal consonants =====

A labial click, variously reported as [ⁿʘʷ] or [ⁿʘˀ], is found in a single root, ''mcwa-'', that is mimetic for a kiss and often made with an accompanying kiss to the hand. ''Mcwa-'' may be allomorphic with ''ncuwa-'' /ⁿǀua/ 'kiss', with a dental click.

A trill [r] is used by some speakers in some words, such as ''karro'' /karo/ (hunting/sighting name for a female giraffe), perhaps reflecting the pronunciation of the word in the language it was borrowed from. It is replaced with /ɺ/ (''karo'' /kaɺo/) by other speakers.

An implosive [ɓ] is used by some speakers in some words, perhaps reflecting the pronunciation of the word in the source language, though in some instances it might co-occur with ejectives, which would be difficult to explain away as a loan (e.g. ''beggawuko'' /bekx’auko/ 'elephant', apparently [ɓekx’auko] in some recordings). It is replaced with /b/ by other speakers. Other implosives have not been noted.

A fricative [x] occurs lexicalized in an expletive, ''ahho'' [ʔaxo], where otherwise the root is ''akho'' /ʔakʰo/ 'genitals'. (/kʰ/ is commonly realized as [kx].)

Word-initial /mu/ and occasionally /mo/ are optionally realized as syllabic [m̩], for example in the common greeting ''mutana'' ~ ''mtana''. This is a Bantu alternation.

/v/ may occasionally be found in loans, as in mimetic ''vûvuko'' ~ ''fûfuko'' /vuːvuko ~ fuːfuko/ 'propeller toy', though it is normally replaced with /f/. [v] (or perhaps [β]) has been reported for /b/, for example in Bleek's transcriptions of the plural suffixes ''-bee'' and ''-bii'' as 've' and 'vi'.

===== Phonotactics =====
All clicks within a root must be the same, as in /ǀikiɺiƞǀa/ 'pinkie'. Although there is a tendency for click consonants and ejectives to occur as C₁, in a quarter of words with clicks the click occurs only as C₂, and in other words as both C₁ and C₂.

Clicks and ejectives may co-occur, though always in that order. When they co-occur, there appears to be some sibilant/lateral harmony, with a strong tendency for /t͜sʼ/ to occur after denti-alveolar clicks and for /c͜ʎ̥˔ʼ/ to occur after lateral clicks.

When an aspirated consonant occurs more than once in a word, the first instance tends to deaspirate (Grassmann's/Katupha's Law, though generally optional). A coda N may block deaspiration, as in the allomorphs /peǃeǃʰe/ ~ /peƞǃʰeƞǃʰe/ 'to rush'. Repeated NC sequences may loose their nasal segment as well, as in /ƞtʰaɺaƞtʰaɺaʔabiʔi/ ~ /taɺaƞtʰaɺaʔabiʔi/ '(arrow) barbs'. It is not clear to what extent these patterns hold if the aspirated consonants are different rather than repeated phonemes.

===Swadesh lists===
Only roots are given below. For example, the word for 'name', given here as the root ''akhana'', is actually feminine plural ''akhanabee''.

====Wichmann & Holman basic 40-word list (ordered by stability)====

#louse ''ccamazzi'' /ⁿǀˀamat͜sʼi/<ref>cf. ''ccezze'' /ⁿǀˀet͜s’e/ 'tick'</ref>
#two ''piye'' /pie/, ''konxa'' /koⁿǁa/ (verb)
#water ''ati'' /ʔati/ (mpl; msg = 'rain, river')
#ear ''hajjapitchi'' /ɦat͜ʃ’apit͜ʃʰi/<ref>from ''hazzape'' /ɦat͜s’ape/ 'leaf'?</ref>
#to die ''taxxi'' /taⁿǁˀi/, ''misi'' /misi/ (Datooga?)
#I *one /ʔone/, */-ko/<ref>If *-ko-a > /-kʷa/ rather than *-kʷa-ʔV > /-koʔo/.</ref>
#liver ''xxe'' /ⁿǁˀe/
#eye ''akhwa'' /ʔakʷʰa/
#hand, arm ''ukhwa'' /ʔukʷʰa/
#hear ''nxaʼe'' /ⁿǁaʔe/
#tree ''zziti'' /t͜s’iti/
#fish ''ccama'' /ⁿǀˀama/, ''ccara'' /ⁿǀˀaɺa/
#name ''akhana'' /ʔakʰana/
#stone ''haqqa'' /ɦaⁿǃˀa/
#tooth ''aha'' /ʔaɦa/
#breast ''iriba'' /ʔiɺiba/ ('breasts, milk'. Cushitic); ''ggazza'' /k͜x’at͜s’a/ ('flesh at sternum')
#thou ''the'' /tʰe/, /-en-/ (m), /-n-/ (f)
#path ''yeke'' /jeke/
#bone ''midla'' /mic͜ʎ̥˔’a/ (cf. Dahalo)
#tongue ''ncata'' /ⁿǀata/
#skin ''ahu'' /ʔaɦu/
#night ''zzifi'' /t͜s’ifi/ (m; f = 'day')
#leaf ''hazzape'' /ɦat͜s’ape/
#rain = 'water' (msg = 'rain, river'; mpl = 'water')
#kill ''xô'' /ǁoː/
#blood ''athama'' /ʔatʰama/
#horn ''roo'' /ɺoʔo/
#person ''haza'' /ɦad͜za/ (human), ''unu'' /ʔunu/ (person)
#knee ''guringuri'' /ɡuɺiƞɡuɺi/ ~ ''gurunguri'' /ɡuɺuƞɡuɺi/ (Cushitic? pan-African)
#one ''itchâme'' /ʔit͜ʃʰaːme/
#nose ''intawe'' /ʔiƞtʰawe/
#full ''ggaʼe'' /k͜x’aʔe/, *cco- /ⁿǀˀo-/
#come ''za'' /d͜za/ (Bantu), ''botco'' /bot͜ʃo/ (stem of imperative)
#star ''ntsa'' /ƞt͜sʰa/, ''sa'' /sa/ (Cushitic?)<ref>Anyawire et al. (2013) only found ''ntsa''. Tucker et al. (1977) report ''sa'' 'star', and Woodburn confirms the form he knows does not have a nasal onset. /ƞ/ + /sa/ would generate /ƞt͜sʰa/. Indeed, speakers do not care if the latter is written ''ntsa'' or ''nsa''. There are several Cushitic loanwords that have an onset that varies as C ~ NC in Hadza where the source language is only reconstructed with C.</ref>
#mountain ''xxudle'' /ⁿǁˀuc͜ʎ̥˔’e/
#fire ''zzoko'' /t͜s’oko/
#we (exclusive) ''ô'' /ʔoː/, /-j-/
#to drink ''fa'' /fʷa/
#to see ''chî'' /ǀʰiː/ ~ ''cî'' /ǀiː/
#bark ''heggwa'' /ɦek͜xʷ’a/
#new ''zana'' /d͜zana/<ref>from ''za'' 'come'?</ref>
#dog ''xhaano'' /ǁʰaʔano/, ''tîngi'' /tiːƞki/
#sun ''isho'' /ʔiʃo/

===Notes===
<references/>

===Bibliography===

* Mariamu Anyawire, G.G. Bala, Kirk Miller (ed.) & Bonny Sands (2013). ''A Hadza Lexicon'' (ms).
* Roger Blench (2008). [https://web.archive.org/web/20110721180216/http://www.rogerblench.info/Language%20data/Khoesan/Blench%20paper%20Riezlern%202008.pdf Hadza Animal Names.] Paper presented at the 3rd International Symposium on Khoisan Languages and Linguistics, Riezlern, 7–9 July 2008.
* Niklas Edenmyr (2004). [https://web.archive.org/web/20070706040409/http://www.african.gu.se/aa/pdfs/aa04003.pdf The semantics of Hadza gender assignment: a few notes from the field.] ''Africa & Asia'', no. 4, Department of Oriental and African languages, Göteborg University, 3–19.
* Edward Elderkin (1978). Loans in Hadza: internal evidence from consonants. ''Occasional Papers'' 3, Dar es Salaam.
* Peter Ladefoged, Ian Maddieson & Bonny Sands (1991). [http://archive.phonetics.ucla.edu/Language/HTS/hts.html Hadza wordlist and sound files]. UCLA Phonetics Lab Archive.
* ———— (1993). [https://www.academia.edu/17743030/The_phonetic_structures_of_Hadza The Phonetic Structures of Hadza.] In [http://repositories.cdlib.org/uclaling/wpp/No84/ ''UCLA Working Papers in Phonetics'' No. 84: ''Fieldwork Studies in Targeted Languages'',] 67–87.
* Kirk Miller (2008). [https://www.academia.edu/36533859/Hadza_grammar_notes Hadza Grammar Notes.] Paper presented at the 3rd International Symposium on Khoisan Languages and Linguistics, Riezlern, 7–9 July 2008.
* ———— (2009). [https://www.academia.edu/36533860/Highlights_of_Hadza_Fieldwork Highlights of Hadza fieldwork.] Paper presented at the 83rd Annual Meeting of the Linguistic Society of America, San Francisco, 8–11 January 2009.
* ———— (2016). Hadza Kinship Terms. In Shah & Brenzinger, eds., ''Khoisan Languages and Linguistics: Proceedings of the 5th International Symposium, July 13–17, 2014, Riezlern/Kleinwalsertal.'' Cologne: Rüdiger Köppe, 277–333.
* Bonny Sands (1998). The Linguistic Relationship between Hadza and Khoisan. In Schladt, Matthias (ed.) ''Language, Identity, and Conceptualization among the Khoisan'' (Quellen zur Khoisan-Forschung Vol. 15), Cologne: Rüdiger Köppe, 265–283.
* ———— (2013). Phonetics and phonology: Hadza; Tonology: Hadza; Morphology: Hadza; Syntax: Hadza. In Rainer Vossen, ed., ''The Khoesan Languages''. Oxford: Routledge.
*Sergei Starostin. [http://starling.rinet.ru/cgi-bin/response.cgi?root=new100&morpho=0&basename=new100\hdz\hdz&limit=-1 Hadza basic lexicon.] Global Lexicostatistical Database. [much of the parsing is speculation, and Bleek's posthumous data is unreliable]
* A.N. Tucker, M.A. Bryan & James Woodburn as co-author for Hadza (1977). The East African Click Languages: A Phonetic Comparison. In J.G. Moehlig, Franz Rottland, Bernd Heine, eds, ''Zur Sprachgeschichte und Ethnohistorie in Afrika.'' Berlin: Dietrich Diener.

[[Category:En]]
[[Category:Single language]]

Hadza

2019-08-29T07:57:54Z

Kirk Miller: touch up

{{InfoboxLanguage
|Language = Hadza
|Autonym = ''Haza, hazane''
|Pronunciation = ɦad͜za
|Ethn15name = Hadza
|Countries = Tanzania
|OfficialLg = none
|OLACname = Hadza
|WALSLoc = 3°45′ S, 35°10′ E
|Speakers = 1,000
|Family = [[isolate]]
|Genus = Hadza
|WritingSyst = none
|ISO3 = hts
}}

Hadza is a language isolate of Tanzania.

=== Location and Speakers ===
Hadza is spoken along the entire eastern shore of alkaline Lake Eyasi, which lies at the base of the Serengeti Plateau in central Tanzania, from Mount Oldeani in the north (just south of Ngorongoro Crater) to the Isanzu agricultural areas in the south. The Hadza do not live at altitudes much above 1500 meters, as they do not build shelters that will ward off the night chill at higher elevations.

There is a small population of Hadza to the west of the lake, in ''Dunduhina'' /duƞtuhina/<ref>This article uses the old IPA letter for a moraic nasal, ⟨ƞ⟩, which was retired because it has no specific phonetic value. In Hadza, the moraic nasal is homorganic with a following consonant.</ref> 'Sukumaland', but their number seems to be decreasing and many only speak Sukuma and Swahili.

There are approximately 1,000 speakers of Hadza, most now bilingual in Swahili. Other second languages include [[Isanzu]] in the south, [[Sukuma]] in the west, and to a lesser degree [[Datooga]] in the center (e.g. near the Yaeda Valley to the southeast of the lake) and [[Iraqw]] on the margins of the Iraqw highlands. The northern Hadza area, around the town of Mangola, was largely monolingual until the introduction of Standard Swahili after independence, though there are loanwords from colonial-era 'upcountry' Swahili.

As of 2005, about 40% of Hadza lived as full-time hunter-gatherers, and language transmission was robust in the areas east of the lake, but since then there have been reports of children speaking Swahili east of the lake, perhaps due to the influx of ''Dunduhinabee'' abandoning their territory in the west.

=== Classification ===
Hadza is a [[language isolate]]. Greenberg classified it as [[Khoisan]] due to its use of [[click consonant]]s. If it were not for the clicks, it's likely that Hadza would have been classified as [[Cushitic]]. Hadza and Sandawe have very similar phonetic inventories and phonotactics, suggesting an old sprachbund. However, the only detected commonalities in vocabulary are old Cushitic loans or perhaps loans that passed from one to the other through Cushitic. Much of the borrowed Cushitic vocabulary is consistent with reconstructions of proto-West Rift.

=== Dialects ===
There do not appear to be any dialects of Hadza, presumably due to the mobility of its speakers. There are some regional differences of vocabulary, however, and speakers note that many more Bantu loans are used in the south.

=== Name ===
"Hadza" is the most common name in the literature. ''Haza'' /ɦad͜za/ simply means 'human being'. The derivative "Hadzane" (/ɦad͜zane/ 'in the manner of the people') is sometimes encountered as the name of the language. The feminine plural ''hazabee'' /ɦad͜zabeʔe/ may be used for the people, though it is usually spelled "Hadzabe" due to devoicing of the final vowel. (The feminine is the inclusive gender in the plural.) "Hadzapi" is the masculine-plural copular form ''hazaphii'' /ɦad͜zapʰiʔi/. "Hatza" and "Hatsa" are older German spellings.

"Tindiga" is from the Swahili name, ''watindiga'' 'people of the marsh grass', presumably named for the large spring in Mangola. The forms ''wahadza'', ''kihadza'' are found instead of ''watindiga'', ''kitindiga'' in recent Swahili publications, but the Hadza do not consider ''watindiga'' to be pejorative. "Kindiga" may be a cognate from one of the local Bantu languages. "Kangeju" (pronounced ''Kangeyu'') is an obsolete German name of unclear origin. The name "Wahi" (pronounced ''Vahi'') found for the western Hadza in Kohl-Larsen is a Sukuma name for the Hadza.

=== Orthography ===
Hadza does not have a written tradition. Two orthographies have seen recent use: the phonetic transcription of Tucker, Bryan & Woodburn (1977), used with some modification by Woodburn and other anthropologists, and the practical orthography of Anyawire et al. (2013). As it is based on the IPA, the Woodburn transcription is more accessible to linguists, while the Anyawire orthography is closer to Sandawe and other written languages of Tanzania. There is evidently some political controversy over the choice of orthography, with Hadza reporting they have been told that if they use the Anyawire orthography they will loose their land. There are two motivations for the Anyawire orthography: the perception that the IPA click letters of the Woodburn transcription portray the Hadza language as bizarre, when the Hadza people already have difficulties with being marginalized and a perception that they are not proper human beings, and the practical issue that the ubiquitous apostrophe of the Woodburn transcription makes it impractical for extended use. The apostrophes are generally omitted by those Hadza who have learned the Woodburn system, with the resulting texts often being unintelligible even to their authors; when the apostrophes are written, they greatly slow down the pace of writing. In the Anyawire orthography, doubled consonants are used for glottalized/ejective consonants and doubled vowels for glottal stop, with the apostrophe only being used for the Swahili convention of ⟨ngʼ⟩ for borrowed /ŋ/.

The Anyawire orthography is used alongside the IPA in this article for accessibility with the Anyawire dictionary. For clarity, an apostrophe will be retained in this article for glottal stop between unlike vowels, e.g. ⟨ae⟩ /ae/ vs ⟨aʼe⟩ /aʔe/. In practice, the Hadza are more likely to write an epenthetic glide between vowels in hiatus, for e.g. ⟨aye⟩ /ae/ vs ⟨ae⟩ /aʔe/.

=== Phonology ===
Hadza syllable structure is limited to CVN in native words. There are no vowel-initial roots, unless ''h'' is analyzed as an allophone of zero. Syllable-coda N surfaces as a homorganic nasal when a following consonant has a place of articulation for it to assimilate to, and as nasalization of the vowel before a glottal consonant (glottal stop and ''h''/zero) and pre-pausa. Coda N also appears allophonically before voiced nasal and glottalized nasal clicks. A moraic (syllabic?) nasal is also found word-initially in loans from Bantu and Datooga, in which case it may have a different pitch than the following vowel, or may be preceded by an epenthetic vowel; such nasals are analyzed here as NCV sequences rather than as a series of prenasalized consonants. Phonetically, initial #NCV may also occur when the initial hV syllable of a #hVC₂V-shaped word is elided and C₂ is a glottalized nasal click.

==== Stress and tone ====
Salient stress and pitch is not restricted to a particular syllable; its position may vary between elicitations of a word pronounced in isolation. There are no known minimal pairs, grammatical or lexical, for stress or tone. Minimal pairs claimed in the literature have turned out to either not be distinct or to not be minimal pairs (e.g., one may have an additional morpheme such as the habitual suffix ''-e'', which frequently reduces to vowel length). It may be that some loanwords retain their tone from their source language.

==== Vowels ====
There are five phonemic vowels, which are close to cardinal [a e i o u].

{| class="wikitable" style=text-align:center
|+Hadza vowels
| style="background: white" |
! Front
! Central
! Back
|-
! High
| i || || u
|-
! Mid
| e || || o
|-
! Low
| || a ||
|}

Phonetic nasal vowels, which are not common except before a consonant, are here analyzed as /VN/.

Phonetic long vowels are often sequences, as in ''kaha'' [kaː] ~ [kaɦa] 'to climb'. In some words, however, there is no allomorph with [ɦ], as in ''bôko'' [boːko] 'she' (forms a minimal pair with ''boko'' [boko] 'to be ill'). There is no known minimal set to establish long /Vː/ as distinct from a /VV/ sequence.

The mid vowels /e, o/ tend to rise when a high vowel, /i, u/, occurs in the following syllable, and /e, o/ may merge with /i, u/ in that position. However, such assimilation tends to be optional, even in suffixed pronouns such as ''onebii'' [ʔone̝biʔi] ~ ''unibii'' [ʔunibiʔi] 'we' (masculine, inclusive).

/u/ is relatively uncommon except in loans or due to vowel-height assimilation, and does not occur in grammatical morphemes unless the morpheme has a second syllable with vowel /i/.

Vowels tend to devoice in pre-pausa position after a voiceless consonant. In the highly frequent pattern of word-final -V₁ʔV₁ (where the two vowels are the same, a pattern found in half of all grammatical suffixes and clitics though not frequently elsewhere), the vowel and preceding glottal stop tend to elide completely when pre-pausa, and either elide or reduce to a long vowel before a suffix/clitic or another word.

==== Consonants ====
Hadza has at least 50 productive syllable onsets and several other marginal consonants.

{| class="wikitable" style=text-align:center
|+Principal Hadza consonants (Parentheses: loans. Dark background: may follow a nasal coda.)
! rowspan=2 colspan=2 |
! rowspan=2 | Labial
! rowspan=2 colspan=2 | (Denti-) alveolar
! rowspan=2 | (Post-) alveolar
! rowspan=2 | Palatal
! colspan=2 | Post-velar
! rowspan=2 | Glottal/ placeless
|- class=small
! plain
! labialized
|-
! rowspan=4 | Click
! Aspirated
|
| colspan=2 style="background: silver" | ǀʰ
| style="background: silver" |ǃʰ
| style="background: LightGray" |ǁʰ
| colspan=3 rowspan=4 style="background: white" |
|-
! Tenuis
|
| colspan=2 style="background: silver" | ǀ
| style="background: Gainsboro" |ǃ
| style="background: Gainsboro" |ǁ
|-
! Voiced nasal
|
| colspan=2 | ⁿǀ
| ⁿǃ
| ⁿǁ
|-
! Glottalized nasal
|
| colspan=2 | ⁿǀˀ
| ⁿǃˀ
| ⁿǁˀ
|-
! rowspan=5 | Plosive / affricate
|-
! Ejective
| pʼ
| colspan=2| t͜sʼ
| t͜ʃʼ
| c͜ʎ̥˔ʼ
| k͜xʼ
| k͜xʷʼ
| style="background: white" |
|-
! Aspirated
| style="background: silver" |pʰ
| style="background: silver" |tʰ
| style="background: silver" |t͜sʰ
| style="background: silver" |t͜ʃʰ
| c͜ʎ̥˔ʰ
| style="background: silver" |kʰ
| style="background: silver" |kʷʰ
|
|-
! Tenuis
| style="background: silver" |p
| style="background: silver" |t
| style="background: silver" |t͜s
| style="background: silver" |t͜ʃ
| c͜ʎ̥˔
| style="background: silver" |k
| style="background: silver" |kʷ
| style="background: silver" |ʔ
|-
! Voiced
| b
| (d)
| (d͜z)
| (d͜ʒ)
|
| (ɡ)
| (ɡʷ)
| style="background: white" |
|-
! colspan=2| Nasal
| m
| colspan=2| n
| colspan=2| (ɲ)
| (ŋ)
| (ŋʷ)
| //ƞ//
|-
! colspan=2 | Fricative
| (fʷ)
| ɬ
| s
| ʃ
|
|
|
|
|-
! colspan=2 | Sonorant
|
| colspan=2 | ɺ
|
| j
|
| w
| style="background: silver" | ɦ (zero?)
|}

Consonants in parentheses are thought to be loans, though the voiced obstruents at least are well-integrated and may be spreading to native roots.

Consonants with a medium grey background may follow a coda nasal in the preceding syllable (that is, they may be C₂ in a CVNCV pattern), whereas those on the lightest grey background may not. Alveolar /ǃ/ and lateral /ǁ/ (medium light grey) are not attested in this environment. However, it is suspected these gaps may be accidental, given that only two roots are known with dental /ǀ/ as C₂ after a nasal coda and that these sequences have not yet been investigated in the field. Moreover, the one known case of aspirated lateral /ƞǁʰ/, though it was clear when elicited, needs to be confirmed with additional speakers. A word with that sequence reported in Tucker, Bryan & Woodburn could not be confirmed by Anyawire et al.

The voice-onset time of consonants is reduced after a nasal coda: [[tenuis]] consonants may be partially or completely voiced, and the aspiration of aspirated consonants may be reduced or lost. This is true of clicks as well as of plosives and affricates, and is reflected in both orthographies. A /b/~/p/ distinction has not been found in post-nasal position despite /b/ being native.

Aspiratation may only be distinct in the first several syllables of a word. Many speakers distinguish aspirated plosives in only a few words, but maintain a robust aspiration distinction in affricates and clicks. The reason for this asymmetry is unknown.

The glottalized nasal clicks surface as e.g. [ǃʔ] post-pausa and often as [ŋ͡nʔǃ] intervocalically. Accounts differ as to whether there is voiceless nasal airflow in post-pausa position.

Aspirated clicks may have a delayed and clearly audible posterior release, e.g. [ǃʰ] ~ [ǃkʰ]. The audible release has the same post-velar articulation as the k-series of plosives.

The alveolar clicks tend to be weakly articulated, though, so far as is known, not slapped as has been reported from Sandawe and evidently erroneously reported for Hadza. When intervocalic, nasal alveolar /ⁿǃ/ may surface as, or nearly as, a doubly articulated pulmonic nasal [ŋ͡n]. The lateral clicks, on the other hand, are typically quite salient, and such phonetic reduction has not be noted.

Among the ejectives, /pʼ/ is uncommon. Most of the others vary between affricate and fricative realizations. Fricative allophens [sʼ, ʃʼ, xʼ, xʷʼ] have been noted for /t͜sʼ, t͜ʃʼ, k͜xʼ, k͜xʷʼ/. Velar /k͜xʼ/ and /k͜xʷʼ/ also have plosive allophones, [kʼ, kʷʼ], and at least /k͜xʼ/ has a lateral allophone [k͜ʟ̝̊ʼ]. Ejective /t͜sʼ/ may correspond to both the alveolar plosive and affricate (/t/ and /t͜s/) series of pulmonic consonants.

The palatal lateral affricates may be pronounced with an alveolar onset, e.g. [t͜ʎ̥˔], or without involving the front of the tongue, e.g. [c͜ʎ̥˔]. Speakers express no preference when hearing these articulations. The fricative /ɬ/, however, is alveolar; a palatal articulation is not accepted. Given that the fricative may be pronounced as an affricate in some prosodic situations, this means that there is a three-way phonetic place contrast among laterals: [t͜ɬ] vs [t͜ʎ̥˔ ~ c͜ʎ̥˔] and [t͜ʎ̥˔ʼ ~ c͜ʎ̥˔ʼ] vs [k͜ʟ̝̊ʼ].

/ɺ/ is typically realized as [l] post-pausa and [ɾ] elsewhere, though [ɺ] is not uncommon in either position. It tends toward [l] when it occurs as both C1 and C2, as in /ɺoɺa/ (sp. rabbit).

[ɦ] and zero may be allophones. If so, and given that vowel-initial suffixes and clitics may elide a stem-final vowel, it would be simplest to posit that the phoneme is zero and that [ɦ] an allophone of zero, rather than that /ɦ/ is elided under some conditions. A predictive conditioning environment for the presence or absence of [ɦ] has not been discovered, but prosody may play a role; even vowel-initial suffixes and clitics may be realized with an initial [ɦ] when given contrastive prosody. Assimilation or bilingualism may be involved in the case of loanwords. For instance, an Isanzu loan for 'snake' was recorded as ''ihato'' /ʔiɦato/ at the beginning of the 20th century (and perhaps in an Isanzu-biligual area) but as ''iyato'' /ʔiato/ at the beginning of the 21st century in Mangola.

The glides /j/ and /w/ are not distinctive next to high front /i/ and back /u/, respectively, and rarely (or uncertainly) distinctive next to mid front /e/ and back /o/. It is possible that medial ''y'' and ''w'' are phonemically /i/ and /u/ and that initial ''y'' and ''w'' are /ʔi/ and /ʔu/. When they occur word-initially, purported /jV, wV/ often appear as [ʔijV] and [ʔuwV]. This is true even of a ubiquitous sequential auxiliary (''yamo'' [jamo] ~ ''iamo'' [ʔiamo] in the 3msg posterior (past?) tense). /j/ does however occur in two object suffixes. In the anthropological and linguistic literature, glides are often written between unlike vowels. For example, the 3msg non-past copula clitic ''-ha'' /ɦa/ is often transcribed as ''ya'' after a front vowel and as ''wa'' after a back vowel.

===== Marginal consonants =====

A labial click, variously reported as [ⁿʘʷ] or [ⁿʘˀ], is found in a single root, ''mcwa-'', that is mimetic for a kiss and often made with an accompanying kiss to the hand. ''Mcwa-'' may be allomorphic with ''ncuwa-'' /ⁿǀua/ 'kiss', with a dental click.

A trill [r] is used by some speakers in some words, such as ''karro'' /karo/ (hunting/sighting name for a female giraffe), perhaps reflecting the pronunciation of the word in the language it was borrowed from. It is replaced with /ɺ/ (''karo'' /kaɺo/) by other speakers.

An implosive [ɓ] is used by some speakers in some words, perhaps reflecting the pronunciation of the word in the source language, though in some instances it might co-occur with ejectives, which would be difficult to explain away as a loan (e.g. ''beggawuko'' /bekx’auko/ 'elephant', apparently [ɓekx’auko] in some recordings). It is replaced with /b/ by other speakers. Other implosives have not been noted.

A fricative [x] occurs lexicalized in an expletive, ''ahho'' [ʔaxo], where otherwise the root is ''akho'' /ʔakʰo/ 'genitals'. (/kʰ/ is commonly realized as [kx].)

Word-initial /mu/ and occasionally /mo/ are optionally realized as syllabic [m̩], for example in the common greeting ''mutana'' ~ ''mtana''. This is a Bantu alternation.

/v/ may occasionally be found in loans, as in mimetic ''vûvuko'' ~ ''fûfuko'' /vuːvuko ~ fuːfuko/ 'propeller toy', though it is normally replaced with /f/. [v] (or perhaps [β]) has been reported for /b/, for example in Bleek's transcriptions of the plural suffixes ''-bee'' and ''-bii'' as 've' and 'vi'.

===== Phonotactics =====
All clicks within a root must be the same, as in /ǀikiɺiƞǀa/ 'pinkie'. Although there is a tendency for click consonants and ejectives to occur as C₁, in a quarter of words with clicks the click occurs only as C₂, and in other words as both C₁ and C₂.

Clicks and ejectives may co-occur, though always in that order. When they co-occur, there appears to be some sibilant/lateral harmony, with a strong tendency for /t͜sʼ/ to occur after denti-alveolar clicks and for /c͜ʎ̥˔ʼ/ to occur after lateral clicks.

When an aspirated consonant occurs more than once in a word, the first instance tends to deaspirate (Grassmann's/Katupha's Law, though generally optional). A coda N may block deaspiration, as in the allomorphs /peǃeǃʰe/ ~ /peƞǃʰeƞǃʰe/ 'to rush'. Repeated NC sequences may loose their nasal segment as well, as in /ƞtʰaɺaƞtʰaɺaʔabiʔi/ ~ /taɺaƞtʰaɺaʔabiʔi/ '(arrow) barbs'. It is not clear to what extent these patterns hold if the aspirated consonants are different rather than repeated phonemes.

===Swadesh lists===
Only roots are given below. For example, the word for 'name', given here as the root ''akhana'', is actually feminine plural ''akhanabee''.

====Wichmann & Holman basic 40-word list (ordered by stability)====

#louse ''ccamazzi'' /ⁿǀˀamat͜sʼi/<ref>cf. ''ccezze'' /ⁿǀˀet͜s’e/ 'tick'</ref>
#two ''piye'' /pie/, ''konxa'' /koⁿǁa/ (verb)
#water ''ati'' /ʔati/ (mpl; msg = 'rain, river')
#ear ''hajjapitchi'' /ɦat͜ʃ’apit͜ʃʰi/<ref>from ''hazzape'' /ɦat͜s’ape/ 'leaf'?</ref>
#to die ''taxxi'' /taⁿǁˀi/, ''misi'' /misi/ (Datooga?)
#I *one /ʔone/, */-ko/<ref>If *-ko-a > /-kʷa/ rather than *-kʷa-ʔV > /-koʔo/.</ref>
#liver ''xxe'' /ⁿǁˀe/
#eye ''akhwa'' /ʔakʷʰa/
#hand, arm ''ukhwa'' /ʔukʷʰa/
#hear ''nxaʼe'' /ⁿǁaʔe/
#tree ''zziti'' /t͜s’iti/
#fish ''ccama'' /ⁿǀˀama/, ''ccara'' /ⁿǀˀaɺa/
#name ''akhana'' /ʔakʰana/
#stone ''haqqa'' /ɦaⁿǃˀa/
#tooth ''aha'' /ʔaɦa/
#breast ''iriba'' /ʔiɺiba/ ('breasts, milk'. Cushitic); ''ggazza'' /k͜x’at͜s’a/ ('flesh at sternum')
#thou ''the'' /tʰe/, /-en-/ (m), /-n-/ (f)
#path ''yeke'' /jeke/
#bone ''midla'' /mic͜ʎ̥˔’a/ (cf. Dahalo)
#tongue ''ncata'' /ⁿǀata/
#skin ''ahu'' /ʔaɦu/
#night ''zzifi'' /t͜s’ifi/ (m; f = 'day')
#leaf ''hazzape'' /ɦat͜s’ape/
#rain = 'water' (msg = 'rain, river'; mpl = 'water')
#kill ''xô'' /ǁoː/
#blood ''athama'' /ʔatʰama/
#horn ''roo'' /ɺoʔo/
#person ''haza'' /ɦad͜za/ (human), ''unu'' /ʔunu/ (person)
#knee ''guringuri'' /ɡuɺiƞɡuɺi/ ~ ''gurunguri'' /ɡuɺuƞɡuɺi/ (Cushitic? pan-African)
#one ''itchâme'' /ʔit͜ʃʰaːme/
#nose ''intawe'' /ʔiƞtʰawe/
#full ''ggaʼe'' /k͜x’aʔe/, *cco- /ⁿǀˀo-/
#come ''za'' /d͜za/ (Bantu), ''botco'' /bot͜ʃo/ (stem of imperative)
#star ''ntsa'' /ƞt͜sʰa/, ''sa'' /sa/ (Cushitic?)<ref>Anyawire et al. (2013) only found ''ntsa''. Tucker et al. (1977) report ''sa'' 'star', and Woodburn confirms the form he knows does not have a nasal onset. /ƞ/ + /sa/ would generate /ƞt͜sʰa/. Indeed, speakers do not care if the latter is written ''ntsa'' or ''nsa''. There are several Cushitic loanwords that have an onset that varies as C ~ NC in Hadza where the source language is only reconstructed with C.</ref>
#mountain ''xxudle'' /ⁿǁˀuc͜ʎ̥˔’e/
#fire ''zzoko'' /t͜s’oko/
#we (exclusive) ''ô'' /ʔoː/, /-j-/
#to drink ''fa'' /fʷa/
#to see ''chî'' /ǀʰiː/ ~ ''cî'' /ǀiː/
#bark ''heggwa'' /ɦek͜xʷ’a/
#new ''zana'' /d͜zana/<ref>from ''za'' 'come'?</ref>
#dog ''xhaano'' /ǁʰaʔano/, ''tîngi'' /tiːƞki/
#sun ''isho'' /ʔiʃo/

===Notes===
<references/>

===Bibliography===

* Mariamu Anyawire, G.G. Bala, Kirk Miller (ed.) & Bonny Sands (2013). ''A Hadza Lexicon'' (ms).
* Roger Blench (2008). [https://web.archive.org/web/20110721180216/http://www.rogerblench.info/Language%20data/Khoesan/Blench%20paper%20Riezlern%202008.pdf Hadza Animal Names.] Paper presented at the 3rd International Symposium on Khoisan Languages and Linguistics, Riezlern, 7–9 July 2008.
* Niklas Edenmyr (2004). [https://web.archive.org/web/20070706040409/http://www.african.gu.se/aa/pdfs/aa04003.pdf The semantics of Hadza gender assignment: a few notes from the field.] ''Africa & Asia'', no. 4, Department of Oriental and African languages, Göteborg University, 3–19.
* Edward Elderkin (1978). Loans in Hadza: internal evidence from consonants. ''Occasional Papers'' 3, Dar es Salaam.
* Peter Ladefoged, Ian Maddieson & Bonny Sands (1991). [http://archive.phonetics.ucla.edu/Language/HTS/hts.html Hadza wordlist and sound files]. UCLA Phonetics Lab Archive.
* ———— (1993). [https://www.academia.edu/17743030/The_phonetic_structures_of_Hadza The Phonetic Structures of Hadza.] In [http://repositories.cdlib.org/uclaling/wpp/No84/ ''UCLA Working Papers in Phonetics'' No. 84: ''Fieldwork Studies in Targeted Languages'',] 67–87.
* Kirk Miller (2008). [https://www.academia.edu/36533859/Hadza_grammar_notes Hadza Grammar Notes.] Paper presented at the 3rd International Symposium on Khoisan Languages and Linguistics, Riezlern, 7–9 July 2008.
* ———— (2009). [https://www.academia.edu/36533860/Highlights_of_Hadza_Fieldwork Highlights of Hadza fieldwork.] Paper presented at the 83rd Annual Meeting of the Linguistic Society of America, San Francisco, 8–11 January 2009.
* ———— (2016). Hadza Kinship Terms. In Shah & Brenzinger, eds., ''Khoisan Languages and Linguistics: Proceedings of the 5th International Symposium, July 13–17, 2014, Riezlern/Kleinwalsertal.'' Cologne: Rüdiger Köppe, 277–333.
* Bonny Sands (1998). The Linguistic Relationship between Hadza and Khoisan. In Schladt, Matthias (ed.) ''Language, Identity, and Conceptualization among the Khoisan'' (Quellen zur Khoisan-Forschung Vol. 15), Cologne: Rüdiger Köppe, 265–283.
* ———— (2013). Phonetics and phonology: Hadza; Tonology: Hadza; Morphology: Hadza; Syntax: Hadza. In Rainer Vossen, ed., ''The Khoesan Languages''. Oxford: Routledge.
*Sergei Starostin. [http://starling.rinet.ru/cgi-bin/response.cgi?root=new100&morpho=0&basename=new100\hdz\hdz&limit=-1 Hadza basic lexicon.] Global Lexicostatistical Database. [much of the parsing is speculation, and Bleek's posthumous data is unreliable]
* A.N. Tucker, M.A. Bryan & James Woodburn as co-author for Hadza (1977). The East African Click Languages: A Phonetic Comparison. In J.G. Moehlig, Franz Rottland, Bernd Heine, eds, ''Zur Sprachgeschichte und Ethnohistorie in Afrika.'' Berlin: Dietrich Diener.

[[Category:En]]
[[Category:Single language]]

Hadza

2019-04-12T11:33:36Z

Kirk Miller: /* Orthography */

{{InfoboxLanguage
|Language = Hadza
|Autonym = ''Haza, hazane''
|Pronunciation = ɦad͜za
|Ethn15name = Hadza
|Countries = Tanzania
|OfficialLg = none
|OLACname = Hadza
|WALSLoc = 3°45′ S, 35°10′ E
|Speakers = 1,000
|Family = [[isolate]]
|Genus = Hadza
|WritingSyst = none
|ISO3 = hts
}}

Hadza is a language isolate of Tanzania.

=== Location and Speakers ===
Hadza is spoken along the entire eastern shore of alkaline Lake Eyasi, which lies at the base of the Serengeti Plateau in central Tanzania, from Mount Oldeani in the north (just south of Ngorongoro Crater) to the Isanzu agricultural areas in the south. The Hadza do not live at altitudes much above 1500 meters, as they do not build shelters that will ward off the night chill at higher elevations.

There is a small population of Hadza to the west of the lake, in ''Dunduina'' /duƞtuina/<ref>This article uses the old IPA letter for a moraic nasal, ⟨ƞ⟩, which was retired because it has no specific phonetic value. In Hadza, the moraic nasal is homorganic with a following consonant.</ref> 'Sukumaland', but their number seems to be decreasing and many only speak Sukuma and Swahili.

There are approximately 1,000 speakers of Hadza, most now bilingual in Swahili. Other second languages include [[Isanzu]] in the south, [[Sukuma]] in the west, and to a lesser degree [[Datooga]] in the center (e.g. near the Yaeda Valley to the southeast of the lake) and [[Iraqw]] on the margins of the Iraqw highlands. The northern Hadza area, around the town of Mangola, was largely monolingual until the introduction of Standard Swahili after independence, though there are loanwords from colonial-era 'upcountry' Swahili.

As of 2005, about 40% of Hadza lived as full-time hunter-gatherers, and language transmission was robust in the areas east of the lake, but since then there have been reports of children speaking Swahili east of the lake, perhaps due to the influx of ''Dunduinabee'' abandoning their territory in the west.

=== Classification ===
Hadza is a [[language isolate]]. Greenberg classified it as [[Khoisan]] due to its use of [[click consonant]]s. If it were not for the clicks, it's likely that Hadza would have been classified as [[Cushitic]]. Hadza and Sandawe have very similar phonetic inventories and phonotactics, suggesting an old sprachbund. However, the only detected commonalities in vocabulary are old Cushitic loans or perhaps passed through Cushitic. Much of the borrowed Cushitic vocabulary is consistent with reconstructions of proto-West Rift.

=== Dialects ===
There do not appear to be any dialects of Hadza, presumably due to the mobility of its speakers. There are some regional differences of vocabulary, however, and speakers note that there are many more Bantu loans in the south.

=== Name ===
"Hadza" is the most common name in the literature. ''Haza'' /ɦad͜za/ simply means 'human being'. The derivative "Hadzane" (/ɦad͜zane/ 'in the manner of the people') is sometimes encountered as the name of the language. The feminine plural ''hazabee'' /ɦad͜zabeʔe/ may be used for the people, though it is usually spelled "Hadzabe" due to devoicing of the final vowel. (The feminine is the inclusive gender in the plural.) "Hadzapi" is the masculine-plural copular form ''hazaphii'' /ɦad͜zapʰiʔi/. "Hatza" and "Hatsa" are older German spellings.

"Tindiga" is from the Swahili name, ''watindiga'' 'people of the marsh grass', presumably named for the large spring in Mangola. The forms ''wahadza'', ''kihadza'' are found instead of ''watindiga'', ''kitindiga'' in recent Swahili publications, but the Hadza do not consider ''watindiga'' to be pejorative. "Kindiga" may be a cognate from one of the local Bantu languages. "Kangeju" (pronounced ''Kangeyu'') is an obsolete German name of unclear origin. The name "Wahi" (pronounced ''Vahi'') found for the western Hadza in Kohl-Larsen is a Sukuma name for the Hadza.

=== Orthography ===
Hadza does not have a written tradition. Two orthographies have seen recent use: the phonetic transcription of Tucker, Bryan & Woodburn (1977), used with some modification by Woodburn and other anthropologists, and the practical orthography of Anyawire et al. (2013). As it is based on the IPA, the Woodburn transcription is more accessible to linguists, while the Anyawire orthography is closer to those of Sandawe and other written languages of Tanzania. There is evidently some political controversy over the choice of orthography, with Hadza reporting they have been told that if they use the Anyawire orthography they will loose their land. There are two motivations for the Anyawire orthography: the perception that the IPA click letters of the Woodburn transcription portray the Hadza language as bizarre, when the Hadza people already have difficulties with being marginalized and a perception that they are not proper human beings, and the practical issue that the ubiquitous apostrophe of the Woodburn transcription makes it impractical for extended use. The apostrophes are generally omitted by those Hadza who have learned it, with the resulting texts often being unintelligible even to their authors; when the apostrophes are written, they greatly slow down the pace of writing. In the Anyawire orthography, doubled consonants and vowels are used for glottalized/ejective consonants and glottal stop, with the apostrophe only being used for the Swahili convention of ⟨ngʼ⟩ for /ŋ/.

The Anyawire orthography is used alongside the IPA in this article for accessibility with the Anyawire dictionary. For clarity, an apostrophe will be retained in this article for glottal stop between unlike vowels, e.g. ''ae'' /ae/ vs ''aʼe'' /aʔe/. In practice, the Hadza are more likely to write an epenthetic glide between vowels in hiatus, for e.g. ''aye'' /ae/ vs ''ae'' /aʔe/.

=== Phonology ===
Hadza syllable structure is limited to CVN in native words. There are no vowel-initial roots, unless ''h'' is analyzed as an allophone of zero. Syllable-coda N surfaces as a homorganic nasal when a following consonant has a place of articulation to assimilate to, and as nasalization of the vowel before a glottal consonant (glottal stop and ''h''/zero) and pre-pausa. Coda N appears allophonically before voiced or glottalized nasal clicks. A moraic (syllabic?) nasal is also found word-initially in loans from Bantu and Datooga, in which case it may have a different pitch than the following vowel, or may be preceded by an epenthetic vowel; such nasals are analyzed here as NCV sequences rather than as a series of prenasalized consonants. Phonetically, initial #NCV may also occur when the hV syllable of an #hVC₂V- word is elided and C₂ is a glottalized nasal click.

==== Stress and tone ====
Salient stress and pitch is not restricted to a particular syllable. There are no known minimal pairs, grammatical or lexical, for contrastive stress or tone. Minimal pairs claimed in the literature have turned out to either not be distinct or to not be minimal pairs. It may be that some loanwords retain their tone from their source language.

==== Vowels ====
There are five phonemic vowels, which are close to cardinal [a e i o u].

{| class="wikitable" style=text-align:center
|+Hadza vowels
| style="background: white" |
! Front
! Central
! Back
|-
! High
| i || || u
|-
! Mid
| e || || o
|-
! Low
| || a ||
|}

Phonetic nasal vowels, which are not common except before a consonant, are here analyzed as /VN/.

Phonetic long vowels are often sequences, as in ''kaha'' [kaː] ~ [kaɦa] 'to climb'. In some words, however, there is no allomorph with [ɦ], as in ''bôko'' [boːko] 'she' (forms a minimal pair with ''boko'' [boko] 'to be ill'). There is no known minimal set to establish long /Vː/ as distinct from a /VV/ sequence.

The mid vowels /e, o/ tend to rise when a high vowel, /i, u/, occurs in the following syllable, and /e, o/ may merge with /i, u/ in that position. However, such assimilation tends to be optional, even in suffixed pronouns such as ''onebii'' [ʔone̝biʔi] ~ ''unibii'' [ʔunibiʔi] 'we' (masculine, inclusive).

/u/ is relatively uncommon except in loans or due to vowel-height assimilation, and does not occur in grammatical morphemes unless the morpheme has a second syllable with vowel /i/.

Vowels tend to devoice pre-pausa and after a voiceless consonant. In the highly frequent pattern of word-final -V₁ʔV₁ (where the two vowels are the same, found in half of all grammatical suffixes and clitics though not frequently elsewhere), the vowel and preceding glottal stop tend to elide completely, whether pre-pausa or before another word.

==== Consonants ====
Hadza has at least 50 productive syllable onsets and several other marginal consonants.

{| class="wikitable" style=text-align:center
|+Principal Hadza consonants (Parentheses: loans. Dark background: may follow a nasal coda.)
! rowspan=2 colspan=2 |
! rowspan=2 | Labial
! rowspan=2 colspan=2 | (Denti-) alveolar
! rowspan=2 | (Post-) alveolar
! rowspan=2 | Palatal
! colspan=2 | Post-velar
! rowspan=2 | Glottal/ placeless
|- class=small
! plain
! labialized
|-
! rowspan=4 | Click
! Aspirated
|
| colspan=2 style="background: silver" | ǀʰ
| style="background: silver" |ǃʰ
| style="background: LightGray" |ǁʰ
| colspan=3 rowspan=4 style="background: white" |
|-
! Tenuis
|
| colspan=2 style="background: silver" | ǀ
| style="background: Gainsboro" |ǃ
| style="background: Gainsboro" |ǁ
|-
! Voiced nasal
|
| colspan=2 | ⁿǀ
| ⁿǃ
| ⁿǁ
|-
! Glottalized nasal
|
| colspan=2 | ⁿǀˀ
| ⁿǃˀ
| ⁿǁˀ
|-
! rowspan=5 | Plosive / affricate
|-
! Ejective
| pʼ
| colspan=2| t͜sʼ
| t͜ʃʼ
| c͜ʎ̥˔ʼ
| k͜xʼ
| k͜xʷʼ
| style="background: white" |
|-
! Aspirated
| style="background: silver" |pʰ
| style="background: silver" |tʰ
| style="background: silver" |t͜sʰ
| style="background: silver" |t͜ʃʰ
| c͜ʎ̥˔ʰ
| style="background: silver" |kʰ
| style="background: silver" |kʷʰ
|
|-
! Tenuis
| style="background: silver" |p
| style="background: silver" |t
| style="background: silver" |t͜s
| style="background: silver" |t͜ʃ
| c͜ʎ̥˔
| style="background: silver" |k
| style="background: silver" |kʷ
| style="background: silver" |ʔ
|-
! Voiced
| b
| (d)
| (d͜z)
| (d͜ʒ)
|
| (ɡ)
| (ɡʷ)
| style="background: white" |
|-
! colspan=2| Nasal
| m
| colspan=2| n
| colspan=2| (ɲ)
| (ŋ)
| (ŋʷ)
| //ƞ//
|-
! colspan=2 | Fricative
| (fʷ)
| ɬ
| s
| ʃ
|
|
|
|
|-
! colspan=2 | Sonorant
|
| colspan=2 | ɺ
|
| j
|
| w
| style="background: silver" | ɦ (zero?)
|}

Consonants in parentheses are thought to be loans, though the voiced obstruents at least are well-integrated and may be spreading to native roots.

Consonants with a grey background may follow a coda nasal in the preceding syllable. (That is, they may be C₂ in a CVNCV pattern.) /ǃ/ and /ǁ/ (lighter grey) are not attested in this position, but it is suspected these may be accidental gaps, given that only two roots are known with /ǀ/ after a nasal coda and that the gaps have not yet been investigated in the field. However, the only known case of /ƞǁʰ/, though it was clear when elicited, needs to be confirmed with additional speakers, so it's possible that the constraint against pulmonic laterals after a nasal coda extends to clicks.

The voice-onset time of consonants is reduced after a nasal coda: [[tenuis]] consonants may be partially or completely voiced, and the aspiration of aspirated consonants may be reduced or lost. This is true of clicks as well as of plosives and affricates. A /b/~/p/ distinction has not been found in this position despite /b/ being native.

Aspirated consonants may only be distinct in the first several syllables of a word. Many speakers distinguish aspirated plosives in only a few words, but maintain a robust distinction for affricates and clicks. The reason for this asymmetry is unknown.

The glottalized nasal clicks surface as e.g. [ǃʔ] post-pausa and often [ŋ͡nʔǃ] intervocalically. Accounts differ as to whether there is voiceless nasal airflow in post-pausa position.

Aspirated clicks may have a delayed and clearly audible posterior release, e.g. [ǃʰ] ~ [ǃkʰ]. This release has the same post-velar articulation as the k-series of plosives.

The ǃ-clicks tend to be weakly articulated, though, so far as is known, not slapped as has been reported from Sandawe. When intervocalic, /ⁿǃ/ may surface as or nearly as [ŋ͡n]. The ǁ-clicks, on the other hand, are typically quite salient.

Among the ejectives, /pʼ/ is uncommon. Many vary between affricate and fricative realizations. [sʼ, ʃʼ, xʼ, xʷʼ] have been noted. /k͜xʼ/ and /k͜xʷʼ/ have plosive allophones [kʼ, kʷʼ], and at least /k͜xʼ/ has a lateral allophone [k͜ʟ̝̊ʼ]. /t͜sʼ/ may be the ejective correlate of both the /t/ and /t͜s/ series of pulmonic consonants.

The palatal lateral affricates may be pronounced with an alveolar onset, e.g. [t͜ʎ̥˔], or without involving the front of the tongue, e.g. [c͜ʎ̥˔]. Speakers express no preference when hearing these articulations. The fricative /ɬ/ is alveolar; a palatal articulation is not accepted. Given that the fricative may be pronounced as an affricate in some prosodic situations, this means that there is a three-way phonetic place contrast among laterals: [t͜ɬ] vs [t͜ʎ̥˔ ~ c͜ʎ̥˔] and [t͜ʎ̥˔ʼ ~ c͜ʎ̥˔ʼ] vs [k͜ʟ̝̊ʼ].

/ɺ/ is typically realized as [l] post-pausa and [ɾ] elsewhere, though [ɺ] is not uncommon. It also tends toward [l] when it occurs as both C1 and C2, as in /ɺoɺa/ (sp. rabbit).

[ɦ] and zero may be allophones. If so, and given that vowel-initial suffixes may elide a stem-final vowel, it would be simplest to posit that the phoneme is zero and [ɦ] an allophone of zero, rather than that /ɦ/ is elided under some conditions. A predictive conditioning environment for the presence or absence of [ɦ] has not been discovered, but prosody may play a role; even vowel-initial suffixes and clitics may be realized with an initial [ɦ] when given contrastive prosody. Assimilation or bilingualism may be involved in the case of loanwords. For instance, an Isanzu loan for 'snake' was recorded as ''ihato'' /ʔiɦato/ at the beginning of the 20th century (and perhaps in an Isanzu-biligual area) but as ''iyato'' /ʔiato/ at the beginning of the 21st century in Mangola.

The glides /j/ and /w/ are not distinctive next to front (/i, e/) and back (/o, u/) vowels, respectively. It is possible that they are allophones of /i/ and /u/. When they occur word-initially, purported /jV, wV/ often appear as [ʔijV] and [ʔuwV]. This is true even of a ubiquitous sequential auxiliary (''yamo'' [jamo] ~ ''iamo'' [ʔiamo] in the 3msg posterior (past?) tense). /j/ does however occur in two object suffixes where such variation has not been noted. In the anthropological and linguistic literature, glides are often written between unlike vowels. For example, the 3msg non-past copula clitic ''-ha'' /ɦa/ is often transcribed 'ya' after a front vowel and 'wa' after a back vowel.

===== Marginal consonants =====

A labial click, variously reported as [ⁿʘʷ] or [ⁿʘˀ], is found in a single root, ''mcwa-'', that is mimetic for a kiss and often made with an accompanying kiss to the hand. ''Mcwa-'' may be allomorphic with ''ncuwa-'' /ⁿǀua/ with a dental click.

A trill [r] is used by some speakers in some words, such as ''karro'' /karo/ (hunting/sighting name for a female giraffe), perhaps reflecting the pronunciation of the word in the language it was borrowed from. It is replaced with /ɺ/ (''karo'' /kaɺo/) by other speakers.

An implosive [ɓ] is used by some speakers in some words, perhaps reflecting the pronunciation of the word in the source language, though in some instances it might co-occur with ejectives, which would be difficult to explain away as a loan (e.g. ''beggawuko'' /bekx’auko/ 'elephant', apparently [ɓekx’auko] in some recordings). It is replaced with /b/ by other speakers. Other implosives have not been noted.

A fricative [x] occurs lexicalized in an expletive, ''ahho'' [ʔaxo], where otherwise the root is ''akho'' /ʔakʰo/ 'genitals'. (/kʰ/ is commonly realized as [kx].)

Word-initial /mu/ and occasionally /mo/ are optionally realized as syllabic [m̩], for example in the common greeting ''mutana'' ~ ''mtana''. This is a Bantu alternation.

/v/ may occasionally be found in loans, as in mimetic ''vûvuko'' ~ ''fûfuko'' /vuːvuko ~ fuːfuko/ 'propeller toy', though it is normally replaced with /f/. [v] (or perhaps [β]) has been reported for /b/, for example in Bleek's transcriptions of the plural suffixes ''-bee'' and ''-bii'' as 've' and 'vi'.

===== Phonotactics =====
All clicks within a root must be the same, as in /ǀikiɺiƞǀa/ 'pinkie'. Although there is a tendency for click consonants and ejectives to occur as C₁, in a quarter of words with clicks the click occurs as C₂.

Clicks and ejectives may co-occur, though always in that order. When they co-occur, there appears to be some sibilant harmony, with a strong tendency for /t͜sʼ/ to occur with denti-alveolar clicks and for /c͜ʎ̥˔ʼ/ to occur with lateral clicks.

When an aspirated consonant occurs more than once in a word, the first tends to deaspirate (Grassmann's/Katupha's Law, though generally optional). A coda N may block deaspiration, as in the allomorphs /peǃeǃʰe/ ~ /peƞǃʰeƞǃʰe/ 'to rush'. NC sequences may loose their nasal segment as well, as in /ƞtʰaɺaƞtʰaɺaʔabiʔi/ ~ /taɺaƞtʰaɺaʔabiʔi/ '(arrow) barbs'. It is not clear to what extent these patterns hold if the aspirated consonants are different phonemes.

===Swadesh lists===
Only roots are given. For example, the word for 'name', given as the root ''akhana'' below, is actually feminine plural ''akhanabee''.

====Wichmann & Holman basic 40-word list (ordered by stability)====

#louse ''ccamazzi'' /ⁿǀˀamat͜sʼi/<ref>cf. ''ccezze'' /ⁿǀˀet͜s’e/ 'tick'</ref>
#two ''piye'' /pie/, ''konxa'' /koⁿǁa/ (verb)
#water ''ati'' /ʔati/ (mpl; msg = 'rain, river')
#ear ''hajjapitchi'' /ɦat͜ʃ’apit͜ʃʰi/<ref>from ''hazzape'' /ɦat͜s’ape/ 'leaf'?</ref>
#to die ''taxxi'' /taⁿǁˀi/, ''misi'' /misi/ (Datooga?)
#I *one /ʔone/, */-ko/<ref>If *-ko-a > /-kʷa/ rather than *-kʷa-ʔV > /-koʔo/.</ref>
#liver ''xxe'' /ⁿǁˀe/
#eye ''akhwa'' /ʔakʷʰa/
#hand, arm ''ukhwa'' /ʔukʷʰa/
#hear ''nxaʼe'' /ⁿǁaʔe/
#tree ''zziti'' /t͜s’iti/
#fish ''ccama'' /ⁿǀˀama/, ''ccara'' /ⁿǀˀaɺa/
#name ''akhana'' /ʔakʰana/
#stone ''haqqa'' /ɦaⁿǃˀa/
#tooth ''aha'' /ʔaɦa/
#breast ''iriba'' /ʔiɺiba/ ('breasts, milk'. Cushitic); ''ggazza'' /k͜x’at͜s’a/ ('flesh at sternum')
#thou ''the'' /tʰe/, /-en-/ (m), /-n-/ (f)
#path ''yeke'' /jeke/
#bone ''midla'' /mic͜ʎ̥˔’a/ (cf. Dahalo)
#tongue ''ncata'' /ⁿǀata/
#skin ''ahu'' /ʔaɦu/
#night ''zzifi'' /t͜s’ifi/ (m; f = 'day')
#leaf ''hazzape'' /ɦat͜s’ape/
#rain = 'water' (msg = 'rain, river'; mpl = 'water')
#kill ''xô'' /ǁoː/
#blood ''athama'' /ʔatʰama/
#horn ''roo'' /ɺoʔo/
#person ''haza'' /ɦad͜za/ (human), ''unu'' /ʔunu/ (person)
#knee ''guringuri'' /ɡuɺiƞɡuɺi/ ~ ''gurunguri'' /ɡuɺuƞɡuɺi/ (Cushitic? pan-African)
#one ''itchâme'' /ʔit͜ʃʰaːme/
#nose ''intawe'' /ʔiƞtʰawe/
#full ''ggaʼe'' /k͜x’aʔe/, *cco- /ⁿǀˀo-/
#come ''za'' /d͜za/ (Bantu), ''botco'' /bot͜ʃo/ (stem of imperative)
#star ''ntsa'' /ƞt͜sʰa/, ''sa'' /sa/ (Cushitic?)<ref>Anyawire et al. (2013) only found ''ntsa''. Tucker et al. (1977) report ''sa'' 'star', and Woodburn confirms the form he knows does not have a nasal onset. /ƞ/ + /sa/ would generate /ƞt͜sʰa/. Indeed, speakers do not care if the latter is written ''ntsa'' or ''nsa''. There are several Cushitic loanwords that have an onset that varies as C ~ NC in Hadza where the source language is only reconstructed with C.</ref>
#mountain ''xxudle'' /ⁿǁˀuc͜ʎ̥˔’e/
#fire ''zzoko'' /t͜s’oko/
#we (exclusive) ''ô'' /ʔoː/, /-j-/
#to drink ''fa'' /fʷa/
#to see ''chî'' /ǀʰiː/ ~ ''cî'' /ǀiː/
#bark ''heggwa'' /ɦek͜xʷ’a/
#new ''zana'' /d͜zana/<ref>from ''za'' 'come'?</ref>
#dog ''xhaano'' /ǁʰaʔano/, ''tîngi'' /tiːƞki/
#sun ''isho'' /ʔiʃo/

====Other Swadesh-100 words====

===Notes===
<references/>

===Bibliography===

* Mariamu Anyawire, G.G. Bala, Kirk Miller (ed.) & Bonny Sands (2013). ''A Hadza Lexicon'' (ms).
* Roger Blench (2008). [https://web.archive.org/web/20110721180216/http://www.rogerblench.info/Language%20data/Khoesan/Blench%20paper%20Riezlern%202008.pdf Hadza Animal Names.] Paper presented at the 3rd International Symposium on Khoisan Languages and Linguistics, Riezlern, 7–9 July 2008.
* Niklas Edenmyr (2004). [https://web.archive.org/web/20070706040409/http://www.african.gu.se/aa/pdfs/aa04003.pdf The semantics of Hadza gender assignment: a few notes from the field.] ''Africa & Asia'', no. 4, Department of Oriental and African languages, Göteborg University, 3–19.
* Edward Elderkin (1978). Loans in Hadza: internal evidence from consonants. ''Occasional Papers'' 3, Dar es Salaam.
* Peter Ladefoged, Ian Maddieson & Bonny Sands (1991). [http://archive.phonetics.ucla.edu/Language/HTS/hts.html Hadza wordlist and sound files]. UCLA Phonetics Lab Archive.
* ———— (1993). [https://www.academia.edu/17743030/The_phonetic_structures_of_Hadza The Phonetic Structures of Hadza.] In [http://repositories.cdlib.org/uclaling/wpp/No84/ ''UCLA Working Papers in Phonetics'' No. 84: ''Fieldwork Studies in Targeted Languages'',] 67–87.
* Kirk Miller (2008). [https://www.academia.edu/36533859/Hadza_grammar_notes Hadza Grammar Notes.] Paper presented at the 3rd International Symposium on Khoisan Languages and Linguistics, Riezlern, 7–9 July 2008.
* ———— (2009). [https://www.academia.edu/36533860/Highlights_of_Hadza_Fieldwork Highlights of Hadza fieldwork.] Paper presented at the 83rd Annual Meeting of the Linguistic Society of America, San Francisco, 8–11 January 2009.
* ———— (2016). Hadza Kinship Terms. In Shah & Brenzinger, eds., ''Khoisan Languages and Linguistics: Proceedings of the 5th International Symposium, July 13–17, 2014, Riezlern/Kleinwalsertal.'' Cologne: Rüdiger Köppe, 277–333.
* Bonny Sands (1998). The Linguistic Relationship between Hadza and Khoisan. In Schladt, Matthias (ed.) ''Language, Identity, and Conceptualization among the Khoisan'' (Quellen zur Khoisan-Forschung Vol. 15), Cologne: Rüdiger Köppe, 265–283.
* ———— (2013). Phonetics and phonology: Hadza; Tonology: Hadza; Morphology: Hadza; Syntax: Hadza. In Rainer Vossen, ed., ''The Khoesan Languages''. Oxford: Routledge.
*Sergei Starostin. [http://starling.rinet.ru/cgi-bin/response.cgi?root=new100&morpho=0&basename=new100\hdz\hdz&limit=-1 Hadza basic lexicon.] Global Lexicostatistical Database. [much of the parsing is speculation, and Bleek's posthumous data is unreliable]
* A.N. Tucker, M.A. Bryan & James Woodburn as co-author for Hadza (1977). The East African Click Languages: A Phonetic Comparison. In J.G. Moehlig, Franz Rottland, Bernd Heine, eds, ''Zur Sprachgeschichte und Ethnohistorie in Afrika.'' Berlin: Dietrich Diener.

[[Category:En]]
[[Category:Single language]]

Hadza

2019-04-12T11:32:49Z

Kirk Miller: /* Orthography */

{{InfoboxLanguage
|Language = Hadza
|Autonym = ''Haza, hazane''
|Pronunciation = ɦad͜za
|Ethn15name = Hadza
|Countries = Tanzania
|OfficialLg = none
|OLACname = Hadza
|WALSLoc = 3°45′ S, 35°10′ E
|Speakers = 1,000
|Family = [[isolate]]
|Genus = Hadza
|WritingSyst = none
|ISO3 = hts
}}

Hadza is a language isolate of Tanzania.

=== Location and Speakers ===
Hadza is spoken along the entire eastern shore of alkaline Lake Eyasi, which lies at the base of the Serengeti Plateau in central Tanzania, from Mount Oldeani in the north (just south of Ngorongoro Crater) to the Isanzu agricultural areas in the south. The Hadza do not live at altitudes much above 1500 meters, as they do not build shelters that will ward off the night chill at higher elevations.

There is a small population of Hadza to the west of the lake, in ''Dunduina'' /duƞtuina/<ref>This article uses the old IPA letter for a moraic nasal, ⟨ƞ⟩, which was retired because it has no specific phonetic value. In Hadza, the moraic nasal is homorganic with a following consonant.</ref> 'Sukumaland', but their number seems to be decreasing and many only speak Sukuma and Swahili.

There are approximately 1,000 speakers of Hadza, most now bilingual in Swahili. Other second languages include [[Isanzu]] in the south, [[Sukuma]] in the west, and to a lesser degree [[Datooga]] in the center (e.g. near the Yaeda Valley to the southeast of the lake) and [[Iraqw]] on the margins of the Iraqw highlands. The northern Hadza area, around the town of Mangola, was largely monolingual until the introduction of Standard Swahili after independence, though there are loanwords from colonial-era 'upcountry' Swahili.

As of 2005, about 40% of Hadza lived as full-time hunter-gatherers, and language transmission was robust in the areas east of the lake, but since then there have been reports of children speaking Swahili east of the lake, perhaps due to the influx of ''Dunduinabee'' abandoning their territory in the west.

=== Classification ===
Hadza is a [[language isolate]]. Greenberg classified it as [[Khoisan]] due to its use of [[click consonant]]s. If it were not for the clicks, it's likely that Hadza would have been classified as [[Cushitic]]. Hadza and Sandawe have very similar phonetic inventories and phonotactics, suggesting an old sprachbund. However, the only detected commonalities in vocabulary are old Cushitic loans or perhaps passed through Cushitic. Much of the borrowed Cushitic vocabulary is consistent with reconstructions of proto-West Rift.

=== Dialects ===
There do not appear to be any dialects of Hadza, presumably due to the mobility of its speakers. There are some regional differences of vocabulary, however, and speakers note that there are many more Bantu loans in the south.

=== Name ===
"Hadza" is the most common name in the literature. ''Haza'' /ɦad͜za/ simply means 'human being'. The derivative "Hadzane" (/ɦad͜zane/ 'in the manner of the people') is sometimes encountered as the name of the language. The feminine plural ''hazabee'' /ɦad͜zabeʔe/ may be used for the people, though it is usually spelled "Hadzabe" due to devoicing of the final vowel. (The feminine is the inclusive gender in the plural.) "Hadzapi" is the masculine-plural copular form ''hazaphii'' /ɦad͜zapʰiʔi/. "Hatza" and "Hatsa" are older German spellings.

"Tindiga" is from the Swahili name, ''watindiga'' 'people of the marsh grass', presumably named for the large spring in Mangola. The forms ''wahadza'', ''kihadza'' are found instead of ''watindiga'', ''kitindiga'' in recent Swahili publications, but the Hadza do not consider ''watindiga'' to be pejorative. "Kindiga" may be a cognate from one of the local Bantu languages. "Kangeju" (pronounced ''Kangeyu'') is an obsolete German name of unclear origin. The name "Wahi" (pronounced ''Vahi'') found for the western Hadza in Kohl-Larsen is a Sukuma name for the Hadza.

=== Orthography ===
Hadza does not have a written tradition. Two orthographies have seen recent use: the phonetic transcription of Tucker, Bryan & Woodburn (1977), used with some modification by Woodburn and other anthropologists, and the practical orthography of Anyawire et al. (2013). As it is based on the IPA, the Woodburn transcription is more accessible to linguists, while the Anyawire orthography is closer to those of Sandawe and other written languages of Tanzania. There is evidently some political controversy over the choice of orthography, with Hadza reporting they have been told that if they use the Anyawire orthography they will loose their land. There are two motivations for the Anyawire orthography: the perception that the IPA click letters of the Woodburn transcription portray the Hadza language as bizarre, when the Hadza people already have difficulties with being marginalized and a perception that they are not proper human beings, and the practical issue that the ubiquitous apostrophe of the Woodburn transcription makes it impractical for extended use. The apostrophes are generally omitted by those Hadza who have learned it, with the resulting texts often being unintelligible even to their authors; when the apostrophes are written, they greatly slow down the pace of writing. In the Anyawire orthography, doubled consonants and vowels are used for glottalized/ejective consonants and glottal stop, with the apostrophe only being used for the Swahili convention of ⟨ngʼ⟩ for /ŋ/.

The Anyawire orthography is used alongside the IPA in this article for accessibility with the Anyawire dictionary. For clarity, an apostrophe will be retained for glottal stop between unlike vowels, for e.g. ''ae'' /ae/ vs ''aʼe'' /aʔe/. In practice, the Hadza are more likely to use epenthetic glides between vowels in hiatus, for e.g. ''aye'' /ae/ vs ''ae'' /aʔe/.

=== Phonology ===
Hadza syllable structure is limited to CVN in native words. There are no vowel-initial roots, unless ''h'' is analyzed as an allophone of zero. Syllable-coda N surfaces as a homorganic nasal when a following consonant has a place of articulation to assimilate to, and as nasalization of the vowel before a glottal consonant (glottal stop and ''h''/zero) and pre-pausa. Coda N appears allophonically before voiced or glottalized nasal clicks. A moraic (syllabic?) nasal is also found word-initially in loans from Bantu and Datooga, in which case it may have a different pitch than the following vowel, or may be preceded by an epenthetic vowel; such nasals are analyzed here as NCV sequences rather than as a series of prenasalized consonants. Phonetically, initial #NCV may also occur when the hV syllable of an #hVC₂V- word is elided and C₂ is a glottalized nasal click.

==== Stress and tone ====
Salient stress and pitch is not restricted to a particular syllable. There are no known minimal pairs, grammatical or lexical, for contrastive stress or tone. Minimal pairs claimed in the literature have turned out to either not be distinct or to not be minimal pairs. It may be that some loanwords retain their tone from their source language.

==== Vowels ====
There are five phonemic vowels, which are close to cardinal [a e i o u].

{| class="wikitable" style=text-align:center
|+Hadza vowels
| style="background: white" |
! Front
! Central
! Back
|-
! High
| i || || u
|-
! Mid
| e || || o
|-
! Low
| || a ||
|}

Phonetic nasal vowels, which are not common except before a consonant, are here analyzed as /VN/.

Phonetic long vowels are often sequences, as in ''kaha'' [kaː] ~ [kaɦa] 'to climb'. In some words, however, there is no allomorph with [ɦ], as in ''bôko'' [boːko] 'she' (forms a minimal pair with ''boko'' [boko] 'to be ill'). There is no known minimal set to establish long /Vː/ as distinct from a /VV/ sequence.

The mid vowels /e, o/ tend to rise when a high vowel, /i, u/, occurs in the following syllable, and /e, o/ may merge with /i, u/ in that position. However, such assimilation tends to be optional, even in suffixed pronouns such as ''onebii'' [ʔone̝biʔi] ~ ''unibii'' [ʔunibiʔi] 'we' (masculine, inclusive).

/u/ is relatively uncommon except in loans or due to vowel-height assimilation, and does not occur in grammatical morphemes unless the morpheme has a second syllable with vowel /i/.

Vowels tend to devoice pre-pausa and after a voiceless consonant. In the highly frequent pattern of word-final -V₁ʔV₁ (where the two vowels are the same, found in half of all grammatical suffixes and clitics though not frequently elsewhere), the vowel and preceding glottal stop tend to elide completely, whether pre-pausa or before another word.

==== Consonants ====
Hadza has at least 50 productive syllable onsets and several other marginal consonants.

{| class="wikitable" style=text-align:center
|+Principal Hadza consonants (Parentheses: loans. Dark background: may follow a nasal coda.)
! rowspan=2 colspan=2 |
! rowspan=2 | Labial
! rowspan=2 colspan=2 | (Denti-) alveolar
! rowspan=2 | (Post-) alveolar
! rowspan=2 | Palatal
! colspan=2 | Post-velar
! rowspan=2 | Glottal/ placeless
|- class=small
! plain
! labialized
|-
! rowspan=4 | Click
! Aspirated
|
| colspan=2 style="background: silver" | ǀʰ
| style="background: silver" |ǃʰ
| style="background: LightGray" |ǁʰ
| colspan=3 rowspan=4 style="background: white" |
|-
! Tenuis
|
| colspan=2 style="background: silver" | ǀ
| style="background: Gainsboro" |ǃ
| style="background: Gainsboro" |ǁ
|-
! Voiced nasal
|
| colspan=2 | ⁿǀ
| ⁿǃ
| ⁿǁ
|-
! Glottalized nasal
|
| colspan=2 | ⁿǀˀ
| ⁿǃˀ
| ⁿǁˀ
|-
! rowspan=5 | Plosive / affricate
|-
! Ejective
| pʼ
| colspan=2| t͜sʼ
| t͜ʃʼ
| c͜ʎ̥˔ʼ
| k͜xʼ
| k͜xʷʼ
| style="background: white" |
|-
! Aspirated
| style="background: silver" |pʰ
| style="background: silver" |tʰ
| style="background: silver" |t͜sʰ
| style="background: silver" |t͜ʃʰ
| c͜ʎ̥˔ʰ
| style="background: silver" |kʰ
| style="background: silver" |kʷʰ
|
|-
! Tenuis
| style="background: silver" |p
| style="background: silver" |t
| style="background: silver" |t͜s
| style="background: silver" |t͜ʃ
| c͜ʎ̥˔
| style="background: silver" |k
| style="background: silver" |kʷ
| style="background: silver" |ʔ
|-
! Voiced
| b
| (d)
| (d͜z)
| (d͜ʒ)
|
| (ɡ)
| (ɡʷ)
| style="background: white" |
|-
! colspan=2| Nasal
| m
| colspan=2| n
| colspan=2| (ɲ)
| (ŋ)
| (ŋʷ)
| //ƞ//
|-
! colspan=2 | Fricative
| (fʷ)
| ɬ
| s
| ʃ
|
|
|
|
|-
! colspan=2 | Sonorant
|
| colspan=2 | ɺ
|
| j
|
| w
| style="background: silver" | ɦ (zero?)
|}

Consonants in parentheses are thought to be loans, though the voiced obstruents at least are well-integrated and may be spreading to native roots.

Consonants with a grey background may follow a coda nasal in the preceding syllable. (That is, they may be C₂ in a CVNCV pattern.) /ǃ/ and /ǁ/ (lighter grey) are not attested in this position, but it is suspected these may be accidental gaps, given that only two roots are known with /ǀ/ after a nasal coda and that the gaps have not yet been investigated in the field. However, the only known case of /ƞǁʰ/, though it was clear when elicited, needs to be confirmed with additional speakers, so it's possible that the constraint against pulmonic laterals after a nasal coda extends to clicks.

The voice-onset time of consonants is reduced after a nasal coda: [[tenuis]] consonants may be partially or completely voiced, and the aspiration of aspirated consonants may be reduced or lost. This is true of clicks as well as of plosives and affricates. A /b/~/p/ distinction has not been found in this position despite /b/ being native.

Aspirated consonants may only be distinct in the first several syllables of a word. Many speakers distinguish aspirated plosives in only a few words, but maintain a robust distinction for affricates and clicks. The reason for this asymmetry is unknown.

The glottalized nasal clicks surface as e.g. [ǃʔ] post-pausa and often [ŋ͡nʔǃ] intervocalically. Accounts differ as to whether there is voiceless nasal airflow in post-pausa position.

Aspirated clicks may have a delayed and clearly audible posterior release, e.g. [ǃʰ] ~ [ǃkʰ]. This release has the same post-velar articulation as the k-series of plosives.

The ǃ-clicks tend to be weakly articulated, though, so far as is known, not slapped as has been reported from Sandawe. When intervocalic, /ⁿǃ/ may surface as or nearly as [ŋ͡n]. The ǁ-clicks, on the other hand, are typically quite salient.

Among the ejectives, /pʼ/ is uncommon. Many vary between affricate and fricative realizations. [sʼ, ʃʼ, xʼ, xʷʼ] have been noted. /k͜xʼ/ and /k͜xʷʼ/ have plosive allophones [kʼ, kʷʼ], and at least /k͜xʼ/ has a lateral allophone [k͜ʟ̝̊ʼ]. /t͜sʼ/ may be the ejective correlate of both the /t/ and /t͜s/ series of pulmonic consonants.

The palatal lateral affricates may be pronounced with an alveolar onset, e.g. [t͜ʎ̥˔], or without involving the front of the tongue, e.g. [c͜ʎ̥˔]. Speakers express no preference when hearing these articulations. The fricative /ɬ/ is alveolar; a palatal articulation is not accepted. Given that the fricative may be pronounced as an affricate in some prosodic situations, this means that there is a three-way phonetic place contrast among laterals: [t͜ɬ] vs [t͜ʎ̥˔ ~ c͜ʎ̥˔] and [t͜ʎ̥˔ʼ ~ c͜ʎ̥˔ʼ] vs [k͜ʟ̝̊ʼ].

/ɺ/ is typically realized as [l] post-pausa and [ɾ] elsewhere, though [ɺ] is not uncommon. It also tends toward [l] when it occurs as both C1 and C2, as in /ɺoɺa/ (sp. rabbit).

[ɦ] and zero may be allophones. If so, and given that vowel-initial suffixes may elide a stem-final vowel, it would be simplest to posit that the phoneme is zero and [ɦ] an allophone of zero, rather than that /ɦ/ is elided under some conditions. A predictive conditioning environment for the presence or absence of [ɦ] has not been discovered, but prosody may play a role; even vowel-initial suffixes and clitics may be realized with an initial [ɦ] when given contrastive prosody. Assimilation or bilingualism may be involved in the case of loanwords. For instance, an Isanzu loan for 'snake' was recorded as ''ihato'' /ʔiɦato/ at the beginning of the 20th century (and perhaps in an Isanzu-biligual area) but as ''iyato'' /ʔiato/ at the beginning of the 21st century in Mangola.

The glides /j/ and /w/ are not distinctive next to front (/i, e/) and back (/o, u/) vowels, respectively. It is possible that they are allophones of /i/ and /u/. When they occur word-initially, purported /jV, wV/ often appear as [ʔijV] and [ʔuwV]. This is true even of a ubiquitous sequential auxiliary (''yamo'' [jamo] ~ ''iamo'' [ʔiamo] in the 3msg posterior (past?) tense). /j/ does however occur in two object suffixes where such variation has not been noted. In the anthropological and linguistic literature, glides are often written between unlike vowels. For example, the 3msg non-past copula clitic ''-ha'' /ɦa/ is often transcribed 'ya' after a front vowel and 'wa' after a back vowel.

===== Marginal consonants =====

A labial click, variously reported as [ⁿʘʷ] or [ⁿʘˀ], is found in a single root, ''mcwa-'', that is mimetic for a kiss and often made with an accompanying kiss to the hand. ''Mcwa-'' may be allomorphic with ''ncuwa-'' /ⁿǀua/ with a dental click.

A trill [r] is used by some speakers in some words, such as ''karro'' /karo/ (hunting/sighting name for a female giraffe), perhaps reflecting the pronunciation of the word in the language it was borrowed from. It is replaced with /ɺ/ (''karo'' /kaɺo/) by other speakers.

An implosive [ɓ] is used by some speakers in some words, perhaps reflecting the pronunciation of the word in the source language, though in some instances it might co-occur with ejectives, which would be difficult to explain away as a loan (e.g. ''beggawuko'' /bekx’auko/ 'elephant', apparently [ɓekx’auko] in some recordings). It is replaced with /b/ by other speakers. Other implosives have not been noted.

A fricative [x] occurs lexicalized in an expletive, ''ahho'' [ʔaxo], where otherwise the root is ''akho'' /ʔakʰo/ 'genitals'. (/kʰ/ is commonly realized as [kx].)

Word-initial /mu/ and occasionally /mo/ are optionally realized as syllabic [m̩], for example in the common greeting ''mutana'' ~ ''mtana''. This is a Bantu alternation.

/v/ may occasionally be found in loans, as in mimetic ''vûvuko'' ~ ''fûfuko'' /vuːvuko ~ fuːfuko/ 'propeller toy', though it is normally replaced with /f/. [v] (or perhaps [β]) has been reported for /b/, for example in Bleek's transcriptions of the plural suffixes ''-bee'' and ''-bii'' as 've' and 'vi'.

===== Phonotactics =====
All clicks within a root must be the same, as in /ǀikiɺiƞǀa/ 'pinkie'. Although there is a tendency for click consonants and ejectives to occur as C₁, in a quarter of words with clicks the click occurs as C₂.

Clicks and ejectives may co-occur, though always in that order. When they co-occur, there appears to be some sibilant harmony, with a strong tendency for /t͜sʼ/ to occur with denti-alveolar clicks and for /c͜ʎ̥˔ʼ/ to occur with lateral clicks.

When an aspirated consonant occurs more than once in a word, the first tends to deaspirate (Grassmann's/Katupha's Law, though generally optional). A coda N may block deaspiration, as in the allomorphs /peǃeǃʰe/ ~ /peƞǃʰeƞǃʰe/ 'to rush'. NC sequences may loose their nasal segment as well, as in /ƞtʰaɺaƞtʰaɺaʔabiʔi/ ~ /taɺaƞtʰaɺaʔabiʔi/ '(arrow) barbs'. It is not clear to what extent these patterns hold if the aspirated consonants are different phonemes.

===Swadesh lists===
Only roots are given. For example, the word for 'name', given as the root ''akhana'' below, is actually feminine plural ''akhanabee''.

====Wichmann & Holman basic 40-word list (ordered by stability)====

#louse ''ccamazzi'' /ⁿǀˀamat͜sʼi/<ref>cf. ''ccezze'' /ⁿǀˀet͜s’e/ 'tick'</ref>
#two ''piye'' /pie/, ''konxa'' /koⁿǁa/ (verb)
#water ''ati'' /ʔati/ (mpl; msg = 'rain, river')
#ear ''hajjapitchi'' /ɦat͜ʃ’apit͜ʃʰi/<ref>from ''hazzape'' /ɦat͜s’ape/ 'leaf'?</ref>
#to die ''taxxi'' /taⁿǁˀi/, ''misi'' /misi/ (Datooga?)
#I *one /ʔone/, */-ko/<ref>If *-ko-a > /-kʷa/ rather than *-kʷa-ʔV > /-koʔo/.</ref>
#liver ''xxe'' /ⁿǁˀe/
#eye ''akhwa'' /ʔakʷʰa/
#hand, arm ''ukhwa'' /ʔukʷʰa/
#hear ''nxaʼe'' /ⁿǁaʔe/
#tree ''zziti'' /t͜s’iti/
#fish ''ccama'' /ⁿǀˀama/, ''ccara'' /ⁿǀˀaɺa/
#name ''akhana'' /ʔakʰana/
#stone ''haqqa'' /ɦaⁿǃˀa/
#tooth ''aha'' /ʔaɦa/
#breast ''iriba'' /ʔiɺiba/ ('breasts, milk'. Cushitic); ''ggazza'' /k͜x’at͜s’a/ ('flesh at sternum')
#thou ''the'' /tʰe/, /-en-/ (m), /-n-/ (f)
#path ''yeke'' /jeke/
#bone ''midla'' /mic͜ʎ̥˔’a/ (cf. Dahalo)
#tongue ''ncata'' /ⁿǀata/
#skin ''ahu'' /ʔaɦu/
#night ''zzifi'' /t͜s’ifi/ (m; f = 'day')
#leaf ''hazzape'' /ɦat͜s’ape/
#rain = 'water' (msg = 'rain, river'; mpl = 'water')
#kill ''xô'' /ǁoː/
#blood ''athama'' /ʔatʰama/
#horn ''roo'' /ɺoʔo/
#person ''haza'' /ɦad͜za/ (human), ''unu'' /ʔunu/ (person)
#knee ''guringuri'' /ɡuɺiƞɡuɺi/ ~ ''gurunguri'' /ɡuɺuƞɡuɺi/ (Cushitic? pan-African)
#one ''itchâme'' /ʔit͜ʃʰaːme/
#nose ''intawe'' /ʔiƞtʰawe/
#full ''ggaʼe'' /k͜x’aʔe/, *cco- /ⁿǀˀo-/
#come ''za'' /d͜za/ (Bantu), ''botco'' /bot͜ʃo/ (stem of imperative)
#star ''ntsa'' /ƞt͜sʰa/, ''sa'' /sa/ (Cushitic?)<ref>Anyawire et al. (2013) only found ''ntsa''. Tucker et al. (1977) report ''sa'' 'star', and Woodburn confirms the form he knows does not have a nasal onset. /ƞ/ + /sa/ would generate /ƞt͜sʰa/. Indeed, speakers do not care if the latter is written ''ntsa'' or ''nsa''. There are several Cushitic loanwords that have an onset that varies as C ~ NC in Hadza where the source language is only reconstructed with C.</ref>
#mountain ''xxudle'' /ⁿǁˀuc͜ʎ̥˔’e/
#fire ''zzoko'' /t͜s’oko/
#we (exclusive) ''ô'' /ʔoː/, /-j-/
#to drink ''fa'' /fʷa/
#to see ''chî'' /ǀʰiː/ ~ ''cî'' /ǀiː/
#bark ''heggwa'' /ɦek͜xʷ’a/
#new ''zana'' /d͜zana/<ref>from ''za'' 'come'?</ref>
#dog ''xhaano'' /ǁʰaʔano/, ''tîngi'' /tiːƞki/
#sun ''isho'' /ʔiʃo/

====Other Swadesh-100 words====

===Notes===
<references/>

===Bibliography===

* Mariamu Anyawire, G.G. Bala, Kirk Miller (ed.) & Bonny Sands (2013). ''A Hadza Lexicon'' (ms).
* Roger Blench (2008). [https://web.archive.org/web/20110721180216/http://www.rogerblench.info/Language%20data/Khoesan/Blench%20paper%20Riezlern%202008.pdf Hadza Animal Names.] Paper presented at the 3rd International Symposium on Khoisan Languages and Linguistics, Riezlern, 7–9 July 2008.
* Niklas Edenmyr (2004). [https://web.archive.org/web/20070706040409/http://www.african.gu.se/aa/pdfs/aa04003.pdf The semantics of Hadza gender assignment: a few notes from the field.] ''Africa & Asia'', no. 4, Department of Oriental and African languages, Göteborg University, 3–19.
* Edward Elderkin (1978). Loans in Hadza: internal evidence from consonants. ''Occasional Papers'' 3, Dar es Salaam.
* Peter Ladefoged, Ian Maddieson & Bonny Sands (1991). [http://archive.phonetics.ucla.edu/Language/HTS/hts.html Hadza wordlist and sound files]. UCLA Phonetics Lab Archive.
* ———— (1993). [https://www.academia.edu/17743030/The_phonetic_structures_of_Hadza The Phonetic Structures of Hadza.] In [http://repositories.cdlib.org/uclaling/wpp/No84/ ''UCLA Working Papers in Phonetics'' No. 84: ''Fieldwork Studies in Targeted Languages'',] 67–87.
* Kirk Miller (2008). [https://www.academia.edu/36533859/Hadza_grammar_notes Hadza Grammar Notes.] Paper presented at the 3rd International Symposium on Khoisan Languages and Linguistics, Riezlern, 7–9 July 2008.
* ———— (2009). [https://www.academia.edu/36533860/Highlights_of_Hadza_Fieldwork Highlights of Hadza fieldwork.] Paper presented at the 83rd Annual Meeting of the Linguistic Society of America, San Francisco, 8–11 January 2009.
* ———— (2016). Hadza Kinship Terms. In Shah & Brenzinger, eds., ''Khoisan Languages and Linguistics: Proceedings of the 5th International Symposium, July 13–17, 2014, Riezlern/Kleinwalsertal.'' Cologne: Rüdiger Köppe, 277–333.
* Bonny Sands (1998). The Linguistic Relationship between Hadza and Khoisan. In Schladt, Matthias (ed.) ''Language, Identity, and Conceptualization among the Khoisan'' (Quellen zur Khoisan-Forschung Vol. 15), Cologne: Rüdiger Köppe, 265–283.
* ———— (2013). Phonetics and phonology: Hadza; Tonology: Hadza; Morphology: Hadza; Syntax: Hadza. In Rainer Vossen, ed., ''The Khoesan Languages''. Oxford: Routledge.
*Sergei Starostin. [http://starling.rinet.ru/cgi-bin/response.cgi?root=new100&morpho=0&basename=new100\hdz\hdz&limit=-1 Hadza basic lexicon.] Global Lexicostatistical Database. [much of the parsing is speculation, and Bleek's posthumous data is unreliable]
* A.N. Tucker, M.A. Bryan & James Woodburn as co-author for Hadza (1977). The East African Click Languages: A Phonetic Comparison. In J.G. Moehlig, Franz Rottland, Bernd Heine, eds, ''Zur Sprachgeschichte und Ethnohistorie in Afrika.'' Berlin: Dietrich Diener.

[[Category:En]]
[[Category:Single language]]

Hadza

2019-04-12T11:31:45Z

Kirk Miller: /* Phonotactics */

{{InfoboxLanguage
|Language = Hadza
|Autonym = ''Haza, hazane''
|Pronunciation = ɦad͜za
|Ethn15name = Hadza
|Countries = Tanzania
|OfficialLg = none
|OLACname = Hadza
|WALSLoc = 3°45′ S, 35°10′ E
|Speakers = 1,000
|Family = [[isolate]]
|Genus = Hadza
|WritingSyst = none
|ISO3 = hts
}}

Hadza is a language isolate of Tanzania.

=== Location and Speakers ===
Hadza is spoken along the entire eastern shore of alkaline Lake Eyasi, which lies at the base of the Serengeti Plateau in central Tanzania, from Mount Oldeani in the north (just south of Ngorongoro Crater) to the Isanzu agricultural areas in the south. The Hadza do not live at altitudes much above 1500 meters, as they do not build shelters that will ward off the night chill at higher elevations.

There is a small population of Hadza to the west of the lake, in ''Dunduina'' /duƞtuina/<ref>This article uses the old IPA letter for a moraic nasal, ⟨ƞ⟩, which was retired because it has no specific phonetic value. In Hadza, the moraic nasal is homorganic with a following consonant.</ref> 'Sukumaland', but their number seems to be decreasing and many only speak Sukuma and Swahili.

There are approximately 1,000 speakers of Hadza, most now bilingual in Swahili. Other second languages include [[Isanzu]] in the south, [[Sukuma]] in the west, and to a lesser degree [[Datooga]] in the center (e.g. near the Yaeda Valley to the southeast of the lake) and [[Iraqw]] on the margins of the Iraqw highlands. The northern Hadza area, around the town of Mangola, was largely monolingual until the introduction of Standard Swahili after independence, though there are loanwords from colonial-era 'upcountry' Swahili.

As of 2005, about 40% of Hadza lived as full-time hunter-gatherers, and language transmission was robust in the areas east of the lake, but since then there have been reports of children speaking Swahili east of the lake, perhaps due to the influx of ''Dunduinabee'' abandoning their territory in the west.

=== Classification ===
Hadza is a [[language isolate]]. Greenberg classified it as [[Khoisan]] due to its use of [[click consonant]]s. If it were not for the clicks, it's likely that Hadza would have been classified as [[Cushitic]]. Hadza and Sandawe have very similar phonetic inventories and phonotactics, suggesting an old sprachbund. However, the only detected commonalities in vocabulary are old Cushitic loans or perhaps passed through Cushitic. Much of the borrowed Cushitic vocabulary is consistent with reconstructions of proto-West Rift.

=== Dialects ===
There do not appear to be any dialects of Hadza, presumably due to the mobility of its speakers. There are some regional differences of vocabulary, however, and speakers note that there are many more Bantu loans in the south.

=== Name ===
"Hadza" is the most common name in the literature. ''Haza'' /ɦad͜za/ simply means 'human being'. The derivative "Hadzane" (/ɦad͜zane/ 'in the manner of the people') is sometimes encountered as the name of the language. The feminine plural ''hazabee'' /ɦad͜zabeʔe/ may be used for the people, though it is usually spelled "Hadzabe" due to devoicing of the final vowel. (The feminine is the inclusive gender in the plural.) "Hadzapi" is the masculine-plural copular form ''hazaphii'' /ɦad͜zapʰiʔi/. "Hatza" and "Hatsa" are older German spellings.

"Tindiga" is from the Swahili name, ''watindiga'' 'people of the marsh grass', presumably named for the large spring in Mangola. The forms ''wahadza'', ''kihadza'' are found instead of ''watindiga'', ''kitindiga'' in recent Swahili publications, but the Hadza do not consider ''watindiga'' to be pejorative. "Kindiga" may be a cognate from one of the local Bantu languages. "Kangeju" (pronounced ''Kangeyu'') is an obsolete German name of unclear origin. The name "Wahi" (pronounced ''Vahi'') found for the western Hadza in Kohl-Larsen is a Sukuma name for the Hadza.

=== Orthography ===
Hadza does not have a written tradition. Two orthographies have seen recent use: the phonetic transcription of Tucker, Bryan & Woodburn (1977), used with some modification by Woodburn and other anthropologists, and the practical orthography of Anyawire et al. (2013). As it is based on the IPA, the Woodburn transcription is more accessible to linguists, while the Anyawire orthography is closer to those of Sandawe and other written languages of Tanzania. There is evidently some political controversy over the choice of orthography, with Hadza reporting they have been told that if they use the Anyawire orthography they will loose their land. There are two motivations for the Anyawire orthography: the perception that the IPA click letters of the Woodburn transcription portray the Hadza language as bizarre, when the Hadza people already have difficulties with being marginalized and a perception that they are not proper human beings, and the practical issue that the ubiquitous apostrophe of the Woodburn transcription makes it impractical for extended use. The apostrophes are generally omitted by those Hadza who have learned it, with the resulting texts often being unintelligible even to their authors; when the apostrophes are written, they greatly slow down the pace of writing. In the Anyawire orthography, doubled consonants and vowels are used for glottalized/ejective consonants and glottal stop, with the apostrophe only being used for the Swahili convention of ⟨ngʼ⟩ for /ŋ/.

The Anyawire orthography is used alongside the IPA in this article for accessibility with the dictionary. For clarity, an apostrophe will be retained for glottal stop between unlike vowels, for e.g. ''ae'' /ae/ vs ''aʼe'' /aʔe/. In practice, the Hadza are more likely to use epenthetic glides between vowels in hiatus, for e.g. ''aye'' /ae/ vs ''ae'' /aʔe/.

=== Phonology ===
Hadza syllable structure is limited to CVN in native words. There are no vowel-initial roots, unless ''h'' is analyzed as an allophone of zero. Syllable-coda N surfaces as a homorganic nasal when a following consonant has a place of articulation to assimilate to, and as nasalization of the vowel before a glottal consonant (glottal stop and ''h''/zero) and pre-pausa. Coda N appears allophonically before voiced or glottalized nasal clicks. A moraic (syllabic?) nasal is also found word-initially in loans from Bantu and Datooga, in which case it may have a different pitch than the following vowel, or may be preceded by an epenthetic vowel; such nasals are analyzed here as NCV sequences rather than as a series of prenasalized consonants. Phonetically, initial #NCV may also occur when the hV syllable of an #hVC₂V- word is elided and C₂ is a glottalized nasal click.

==== Stress and tone ====
Salient stress and pitch is not restricted to a particular syllable. There are no known minimal pairs, grammatical or lexical, for contrastive stress or tone. Minimal pairs claimed in the literature have turned out to either not be distinct or to not be minimal pairs. It may be that some loanwords retain their tone from their source language.

==== Vowels ====
There are five phonemic vowels, which are close to cardinal [a e i o u].

{| class="wikitable" style=text-align:center
|+Hadza vowels
| style="background: white" |
! Front
! Central
! Back
|-
! High
| i || || u
|-
! Mid
| e || || o
|-
! Low
| || a ||
|}

Phonetic nasal vowels, which are not common except before a consonant, are here analyzed as /VN/.

Phonetic long vowels are often sequences, as in ''kaha'' [kaː] ~ [kaɦa] 'to climb'. In some words, however, there is no allomorph with [ɦ], as in ''bôko'' [boːko] 'she' (forms a minimal pair with ''boko'' [boko] 'to be ill'). There is no known minimal set to establish long /Vː/ as distinct from a /VV/ sequence.

The mid vowels /e, o/ tend to rise when a high vowel, /i, u/, occurs in the following syllable, and /e, o/ may merge with /i, u/ in that position. However, such assimilation tends to be optional, even in suffixed pronouns such as ''onebii'' [ʔone̝biʔi] ~ ''unibii'' [ʔunibiʔi] 'we' (masculine, inclusive).

/u/ is relatively uncommon except in loans or due to vowel-height assimilation, and does not occur in grammatical morphemes unless the morpheme has a second syllable with vowel /i/.

Vowels tend to devoice pre-pausa and after a voiceless consonant. In the highly frequent pattern of word-final -V₁ʔV₁ (where the two vowels are the same, found in half of all grammatical suffixes and clitics though not frequently elsewhere), the vowel and preceding glottal stop tend to elide completely, whether pre-pausa or before another word.

==== Consonants ====
Hadza has at least 50 productive syllable onsets and several other marginal consonants.

{| class="wikitable" style=text-align:center
|+Principal Hadza consonants (Parentheses: loans. Dark background: may follow a nasal coda.)
! rowspan=2 colspan=2 |
! rowspan=2 | Labial
! rowspan=2 colspan=2 | (Denti-) alveolar
! rowspan=2 | (Post-) alveolar
! rowspan=2 | Palatal
! colspan=2 | Post-velar
! rowspan=2 | Glottal/ placeless
|- class=small
! plain
! labialized
|-
! rowspan=4 | Click
! Aspirated
|
| colspan=2 style="background: silver" | ǀʰ
| style="background: silver" |ǃʰ
| style="background: LightGray" |ǁʰ
| colspan=3 rowspan=4 style="background: white" |
|-
! Tenuis
|
| colspan=2 style="background: silver" | ǀ
| style="background: Gainsboro" |ǃ
| style="background: Gainsboro" |ǁ
|-
! Voiced nasal
|
| colspan=2 | ⁿǀ
| ⁿǃ
| ⁿǁ
|-
! Glottalized nasal
|
| colspan=2 | ⁿǀˀ
| ⁿǃˀ
| ⁿǁˀ
|-
! rowspan=5 | Plosive / affricate
|-
! Ejective
| pʼ
| colspan=2| t͜sʼ
| t͜ʃʼ
| c͜ʎ̥˔ʼ
| k͜xʼ
| k͜xʷʼ
| style="background: white" |
|-
! Aspirated
| style="background: silver" |pʰ
| style="background: silver" |tʰ
| style="background: silver" |t͜sʰ
| style="background: silver" |t͜ʃʰ
| c͜ʎ̥˔ʰ
| style="background: silver" |kʰ
| style="background: silver" |kʷʰ
|
|-
! Tenuis
| style="background: silver" |p
| style="background: silver" |t
| style="background: silver" |t͜s
| style="background: silver" |t͜ʃ
| c͜ʎ̥˔
| style="background: silver" |k
| style="background: silver" |kʷ
| style="background: silver" |ʔ
|-
! Voiced
| b
| (d)
| (d͜z)
| (d͜ʒ)
|
| (ɡ)
| (ɡʷ)
| style="background: white" |
|-
! colspan=2| Nasal
| m
| colspan=2| n
| colspan=2| (ɲ)
| (ŋ)
| (ŋʷ)
| //ƞ//
|-
! colspan=2 | Fricative
| (fʷ)
| ɬ
| s
| ʃ
|
|
|
|
|-
! colspan=2 | Sonorant
|
| colspan=2 | ɺ
|
| j
|
| w
| style="background: silver" | ɦ (zero?)
|}

Consonants in parentheses are thought to be loans, though the voiced obstruents at least are well-integrated and may be spreading to native roots.

Consonants with a grey background may follow a coda nasal in the preceding syllable. (That is, they may be C₂ in a CVNCV pattern.) /ǃ/ and /ǁ/ (lighter grey) are not attested in this position, but it is suspected these may be accidental gaps, given that only two roots are known with /ǀ/ after a nasal coda and that the gaps have not yet been investigated in the field. However, the only known case of /ƞǁʰ/, though it was clear when elicited, needs to be confirmed with additional speakers, so it's possible that the constraint against pulmonic laterals after a nasal coda extends to clicks.

The voice-onset time of consonants is reduced after a nasal coda: [[tenuis]] consonants may be partially or completely voiced, and the aspiration of aspirated consonants may be reduced or lost. This is true of clicks as well as of plosives and affricates. A /b/~/p/ distinction has not been found in this position despite /b/ being native.

Aspirated consonants may only be distinct in the first several syllables of a word. Many speakers distinguish aspirated plosives in only a few words, but maintain a robust distinction for affricates and clicks. The reason for this asymmetry is unknown.

The glottalized nasal clicks surface as e.g. [ǃʔ] post-pausa and often [ŋ͡nʔǃ] intervocalically. Accounts differ as to whether there is voiceless nasal airflow in post-pausa position.

Aspirated clicks may have a delayed and clearly audible posterior release, e.g. [ǃʰ] ~ [ǃkʰ]. This release has the same post-velar articulation as the k-series of plosives.

The ǃ-clicks tend to be weakly articulated, though, so far as is known, not slapped as has been reported from Sandawe. When intervocalic, /ⁿǃ/ may surface as or nearly as [ŋ͡n]. The ǁ-clicks, on the other hand, are typically quite salient.

Among the ejectives, /pʼ/ is uncommon. Many vary between affricate and fricative realizations. [sʼ, ʃʼ, xʼ, xʷʼ] have been noted. /k͜xʼ/ and /k͜xʷʼ/ have plosive allophones [kʼ, kʷʼ], and at least /k͜xʼ/ has a lateral allophone [k͜ʟ̝̊ʼ]. /t͜sʼ/ may be the ejective correlate of both the /t/ and /t͜s/ series of pulmonic consonants.

The palatal lateral affricates may be pronounced with an alveolar onset, e.g. [t͜ʎ̥˔], or without involving the front of the tongue, e.g. [c͜ʎ̥˔]. Speakers express no preference when hearing these articulations. The fricative /ɬ/ is alveolar; a palatal articulation is not accepted. Given that the fricative may be pronounced as an affricate in some prosodic situations, this means that there is a three-way phonetic place contrast among laterals: [t͜ɬ] vs [t͜ʎ̥˔ ~ c͜ʎ̥˔] and [t͜ʎ̥˔ʼ ~ c͜ʎ̥˔ʼ] vs [k͜ʟ̝̊ʼ].

/ɺ/ is typically realized as [l] post-pausa and [ɾ] elsewhere, though [ɺ] is not uncommon. It also tends toward [l] when it occurs as both C1 and C2, as in /ɺoɺa/ (sp. rabbit).

[ɦ] and zero may be allophones. If so, and given that vowel-initial suffixes may elide a stem-final vowel, it would be simplest to posit that the phoneme is zero and [ɦ] an allophone of zero, rather than that /ɦ/ is elided under some conditions. A predictive conditioning environment for the presence or absence of [ɦ] has not been discovered, but prosody may play a role; even vowel-initial suffixes and clitics may be realized with an initial [ɦ] when given contrastive prosody. Assimilation or bilingualism may be involved in the case of loanwords. For instance, an Isanzu loan for 'snake' was recorded as ''ihato'' /ʔiɦato/ at the beginning of the 20th century (and perhaps in an Isanzu-biligual area) but as ''iyato'' /ʔiato/ at the beginning of the 21st century in Mangola.

The glides /j/ and /w/ are not distinctive next to front (/i, e/) and back (/o, u/) vowels, respectively. It is possible that they are allophones of /i/ and /u/. When they occur word-initially, purported /jV, wV/ often appear as [ʔijV] and [ʔuwV]. This is true even of a ubiquitous sequential auxiliary (''yamo'' [jamo] ~ ''iamo'' [ʔiamo] in the 3msg posterior (past?) tense). /j/ does however occur in two object suffixes where such variation has not been noted. In the anthropological and linguistic literature, glides are often written between unlike vowels. For example, the 3msg non-past copula clitic ''-ha'' /ɦa/ is often transcribed 'ya' after a front vowel and 'wa' after a back vowel.

===== Marginal consonants =====

A labial click, variously reported as [ⁿʘʷ] or [ⁿʘˀ], is found in a single root, ''mcwa-'', that is mimetic for a kiss and often made with an accompanying kiss to the hand. ''Mcwa-'' may be allomorphic with ''ncuwa-'' /ⁿǀua/ with a dental click.

A trill [r] is used by some speakers in some words, such as ''karro'' /karo/ (hunting/sighting name for a female giraffe), perhaps reflecting the pronunciation of the word in the language it was borrowed from. It is replaced with /ɺ/ (''karo'' /kaɺo/) by other speakers.

An implosive [ɓ] is used by some speakers in some words, perhaps reflecting the pronunciation of the word in the source language, though in some instances it might co-occur with ejectives, which would be difficult to explain away as a loan (e.g. ''beggawuko'' /bekx’auko/ 'elephant', apparently [ɓekx’auko] in some recordings). It is replaced with /b/ by other speakers. Other implosives have not been noted.

A fricative [x] occurs lexicalized in an expletive, ''ahho'' [ʔaxo], where otherwise the root is ''akho'' /ʔakʰo/ 'genitals'. (/kʰ/ is commonly realized as [kx].)

Word-initial /mu/ and occasionally /mo/ are optionally realized as syllabic [m̩], for example in the common greeting ''mutana'' ~ ''mtana''. This is a Bantu alternation.

/v/ may occasionally be found in loans, as in mimetic ''vûvuko'' ~ ''fûfuko'' /vuːvuko ~ fuːfuko/ 'propeller toy', though it is normally replaced with /f/. [v] (or perhaps [β]) has been reported for /b/, for example in Bleek's transcriptions of the plural suffixes ''-bee'' and ''-bii'' as 've' and 'vi'.

===== Phonotactics =====
All clicks within a root must be the same, as in /ǀikiɺiƞǀa/ 'pinkie'. Although there is a tendency for click consonants and ejectives to occur as C₁, in a quarter of words with clicks the click occurs as C₂.

Clicks and ejectives may co-occur, though always in that order. When they co-occur, there appears to be some sibilant harmony, with a strong tendency for /t͜sʼ/ to occur with denti-alveolar clicks and for /c͜ʎ̥˔ʼ/ to occur with lateral clicks.

When an aspirated consonant occurs more than once in a word, the first tends to deaspirate (Grassmann's/Katupha's Law, though generally optional). A coda N may block deaspiration, as in the allomorphs /peǃeǃʰe/ ~ /peƞǃʰeƞǃʰe/ 'to rush'. NC sequences may loose their nasal segment as well, as in /ƞtʰaɺaƞtʰaɺaʔabiʔi/ ~ /taɺaƞtʰaɺaʔabiʔi/ '(arrow) barbs'. It is not clear to what extent these patterns hold if the aspirated consonants are different phonemes.

===Swadesh lists===
Only roots are given. For example, the word for 'name', given as the root ''akhana'' below, is actually feminine plural ''akhanabee''.

====Wichmann & Holman basic 40-word list (ordered by stability)====

#louse ''ccamazzi'' /ⁿǀˀamat͜sʼi/<ref>cf. ''ccezze'' /ⁿǀˀet͜s’e/ 'tick'</ref>
#two ''piye'' /pie/, ''konxa'' /koⁿǁa/ (verb)
#water ''ati'' /ʔati/ (mpl; msg = 'rain, river')
#ear ''hajjapitchi'' /ɦat͜ʃ’apit͜ʃʰi/<ref>from ''hazzape'' /ɦat͜s’ape/ 'leaf'?</ref>
#to die ''taxxi'' /taⁿǁˀi/, ''misi'' /misi/ (Datooga?)
#I *one /ʔone/, */-ko/<ref>If *-ko-a > /-kʷa/ rather than *-kʷa-ʔV > /-koʔo/.</ref>
#liver ''xxe'' /ⁿǁˀe/
#eye ''akhwa'' /ʔakʷʰa/
#hand, arm ''ukhwa'' /ʔukʷʰa/
#hear ''nxaʼe'' /ⁿǁaʔe/
#tree ''zziti'' /t͜s’iti/
#fish ''ccama'' /ⁿǀˀama/, ''ccara'' /ⁿǀˀaɺa/
#name ''akhana'' /ʔakʰana/
#stone ''haqqa'' /ɦaⁿǃˀa/
#tooth ''aha'' /ʔaɦa/
#breast ''iriba'' /ʔiɺiba/ ('breasts, milk'. Cushitic); ''ggazza'' /k͜x’at͜s’a/ ('flesh at sternum')
#thou ''the'' /tʰe/, /-en-/ (m), /-n-/ (f)
#path ''yeke'' /jeke/
#bone ''midla'' /mic͜ʎ̥˔’a/ (cf. Dahalo)
#tongue ''ncata'' /ⁿǀata/
#skin ''ahu'' /ʔaɦu/
#night ''zzifi'' /t͜s’ifi/ (m; f = 'day')
#leaf ''hazzape'' /ɦat͜s’ape/
#rain = 'water' (msg = 'rain, river'; mpl = 'water')
#kill ''xô'' /ǁoː/
#blood ''athama'' /ʔatʰama/
#horn ''roo'' /ɺoʔo/
#person ''haza'' /ɦad͜za/ (human), ''unu'' /ʔunu/ (person)
#knee ''guringuri'' /ɡuɺiƞɡuɺi/ ~ ''gurunguri'' /ɡuɺuƞɡuɺi/ (Cushitic? pan-African)
#one ''itchâme'' /ʔit͜ʃʰaːme/
#nose ''intawe'' /ʔiƞtʰawe/
#full ''ggaʼe'' /k͜x’aʔe/, *cco- /ⁿǀˀo-/
#come ''za'' /d͜za/ (Bantu), ''botco'' /bot͜ʃo/ (stem of imperative)
#star ''ntsa'' /ƞt͜sʰa/, ''sa'' /sa/ (Cushitic?)<ref>Anyawire et al. (2013) only found ''ntsa''. Tucker et al. (1977) report ''sa'' 'star', and Woodburn confirms the form he knows does not have a nasal onset. /ƞ/ + /sa/ would generate /ƞt͜sʰa/. Indeed, speakers do not care if the latter is written ''ntsa'' or ''nsa''. There are several Cushitic loanwords that have an onset that varies as C ~ NC in Hadza where the source language is only reconstructed with C.</ref>
#mountain ''xxudle'' /ⁿǁˀuc͜ʎ̥˔’e/
#fire ''zzoko'' /t͜s’oko/
#we (exclusive) ''ô'' /ʔoː/, /-j-/
#to drink ''fa'' /fʷa/
#to see ''chî'' /ǀʰiː/ ~ ''cî'' /ǀiː/
#bark ''heggwa'' /ɦek͜xʷ’a/
#new ''zana'' /d͜zana/<ref>from ''za'' 'come'?</ref>
#dog ''xhaano'' /ǁʰaʔano/, ''tîngi'' /tiːƞki/
#sun ''isho'' /ʔiʃo/

====Other Swadesh-100 words====

===Notes===
<references/>

===Bibliography===

* Mariamu Anyawire, G.G. Bala, Kirk Miller (ed.) & Bonny Sands (2013). ''A Hadza Lexicon'' (ms).
* Roger Blench (2008). [https://web.archive.org/web/20110721180216/http://www.rogerblench.info/Language%20data/Khoesan/Blench%20paper%20Riezlern%202008.pdf Hadza Animal Names.] Paper presented at the 3rd International Symposium on Khoisan Languages and Linguistics, Riezlern, 7–9 July 2008.
* Niklas Edenmyr (2004). [https://web.archive.org/web/20070706040409/http://www.african.gu.se/aa/pdfs/aa04003.pdf The semantics of Hadza gender assignment: a few notes from the field.] ''Africa & Asia'', no. 4, Department of Oriental and African languages, Göteborg University, 3–19.
* Edward Elderkin (1978). Loans in Hadza: internal evidence from consonants. ''Occasional Papers'' 3, Dar es Salaam.
* Peter Ladefoged, Ian Maddieson & Bonny Sands (1991). [http://archive.phonetics.ucla.edu/Language/HTS/hts.html Hadza wordlist and sound files]. UCLA Phonetics Lab Archive.
* ———— (1993). [https://www.academia.edu/17743030/The_phonetic_structures_of_Hadza The Phonetic Structures of Hadza.] In [http://repositories.cdlib.org/uclaling/wpp/No84/ ''UCLA Working Papers in Phonetics'' No. 84: ''Fieldwork Studies in Targeted Languages'',] 67–87.
* Kirk Miller (2008). [https://www.academia.edu/36533859/Hadza_grammar_notes Hadza Grammar Notes.] Paper presented at the 3rd International Symposium on Khoisan Languages and Linguistics, Riezlern, 7–9 July 2008.
* ———— (2009). [https://www.academia.edu/36533860/Highlights_of_Hadza_Fieldwork Highlights of Hadza fieldwork.] Paper presented at the 83rd Annual Meeting of the Linguistic Society of America, San Francisco, 8–11 January 2009.
* ———— (2016). Hadza Kinship Terms. In Shah & Brenzinger, eds., ''Khoisan Languages and Linguistics: Proceedings of the 5th International Symposium, July 13–17, 2014, Riezlern/Kleinwalsertal.'' Cologne: Rüdiger Köppe, 277–333.
* Bonny Sands (1998). The Linguistic Relationship between Hadza and Khoisan. In Schladt, Matthias (ed.) ''Language, Identity, and Conceptualization among the Khoisan'' (Quellen zur Khoisan-Forschung Vol. 15), Cologne: Rüdiger Köppe, 265–283.
* ———— (2013). Phonetics and phonology: Hadza; Tonology: Hadza; Morphology: Hadza; Syntax: Hadza. In Rainer Vossen, ed., ''The Khoesan Languages''. Oxford: Routledge.
*Sergei Starostin. [http://starling.rinet.ru/cgi-bin/response.cgi?root=new100&morpho=0&basename=new100\hdz\hdz&limit=-1 Hadza basic lexicon.] Global Lexicostatistical Database. [much of the parsing is speculation, and Bleek's posthumous data is unreliable]
* A.N. Tucker, M.A. Bryan & James Woodburn as co-author for Hadza (1977). The East African Click Languages: A Phonetic Comparison. In J.G. Moehlig, Franz Rottland, Bernd Heine, eds, ''Zur Sprachgeschichte und Ethnohistorie in Afrika.'' Berlin: Dietrich Diener.

[[Category:En]]
[[Category:Single language]]

Hadza

2019-04-12T11:25:53Z

Kirk Miller: /* Location and Speakers */

{{InfoboxLanguage
|Language = Hadza
|Autonym = ''Haza, hazane''
|Pronunciation = ɦad͜za
|Ethn15name = Hadza
|Countries = Tanzania
|OfficialLg = none
|OLACname = Hadza
|WALSLoc = 3°45′ S, 35°10′ E
|Speakers = 1,000
|Family = [[isolate]]
|Genus = Hadza
|WritingSyst = none
|ISO3 = hts
}}

Hadza is a language isolate of Tanzania.

=== Location and Speakers ===
Hadza is spoken along the entire eastern shore of alkaline Lake Eyasi, which lies at the base of the Serengeti Plateau in central Tanzania, from Mount Oldeani in the north (just south of Ngorongoro Crater) to the Isanzu agricultural areas in the south. The Hadza do not live at altitudes much above 1500 meters, as they do not build shelters that will ward off the night chill at higher elevations.

There is a small population of Hadza to the west of the lake, in ''Dunduina'' /duƞtuina/<ref>This article uses the old IPA letter for a moraic nasal, ⟨ƞ⟩, which was retired because it has no specific phonetic value. In Hadza, the moraic nasal is homorganic with a following consonant.</ref> 'Sukumaland', but their number seems to be decreasing and many only speak Sukuma and Swahili.

There are approximately 1,000 speakers of Hadza, most now bilingual in Swahili. Other second languages include [[Isanzu]] in the south, [[Sukuma]] in the west, and to a lesser degree [[Datooga]] in the center (e.g. near the Yaeda Valley to the southeast of the lake) and [[Iraqw]] on the margins of the Iraqw highlands. The northern Hadza area, around the town of Mangola, was largely monolingual until the introduction of Standard Swahili after independence, though there are loanwords from colonial-era 'upcountry' Swahili.

As of 2005, about 40% of Hadza lived as full-time hunter-gatherers, and language transmission was robust in the areas east of the lake, but since then there have been reports of children speaking Swahili east of the lake, perhaps due to the influx of ''Dunduinabee'' abandoning their territory in the west.

=== Classification ===
Hadza is a [[language isolate]]. Greenberg classified it as [[Khoisan]] due to its use of [[click consonant]]s. If it were not for the clicks, it's likely that Hadza would have been classified as [[Cushitic]]. Hadza and Sandawe have very similar phonetic inventories and phonotactics, suggesting an old sprachbund. However, the only detected commonalities in vocabulary are old Cushitic loans or perhaps passed through Cushitic. Much of the borrowed Cushitic vocabulary is consistent with reconstructions of proto-West Rift.

=== Dialects ===
There do not appear to be any dialects of Hadza, presumably due to the mobility of its speakers. There are some regional differences of vocabulary, however, and speakers note that there are many more Bantu loans in the south.

=== Name ===
"Hadza" is the most common name in the literature. ''Haza'' /ɦad͜za/ simply means 'human being'. The derivative "Hadzane" (/ɦad͜zane/ 'in the manner of the people') is sometimes encountered as the name of the language. The feminine plural ''hazabee'' /ɦad͜zabeʔe/ may be used for the people, though it is usually spelled "Hadzabe" due to devoicing of the final vowel. (The feminine is the inclusive gender in the plural.) "Hadzapi" is the masculine-plural copular form ''hazaphii'' /ɦad͜zapʰiʔi/. "Hatza" and "Hatsa" are older German spellings.

"Tindiga" is from the Swahili name, ''watindiga'' 'people of the marsh grass', presumably named for the large spring in Mangola. The forms ''wahadza'', ''kihadza'' are found instead of ''watindiga'', ''kitindiga'' in recent Swahili publications, but the Hadza do not consider ''watindiga'' to be pejorative. "Kindiga" may be a cognate from one of the local Bantu languages. "Kangeju" (pronounced ''Kangeyu'') is an obsolete German name of unclear origin. The name "Wahi" (pronounced ''Vahi'') found for the western Hadza in Kohl-Larsen is a Sukuma name for the Hadza.

=== Orthography ===
Hadza does not have a written tradition. Two orthographies have seen recent use: the phonetic transcription of Tucker, Bryan & Woodburn (1977), used with some modification by Woodburn and other anthropologists, and the practical orthography of Anyawire et al. (2013). As it is based on the IPA, the Woodburn transcription is more accessible to linguists, while the Anyawire orthography is closer to those of Sandawe and other written languages of Tanzania. There is evidently some political controversy over the choice of orthography, with Hadza reporting they have been told that if they use the Anyawire orthography they will loose their land. There are two motivations for the Anyawire orthography: the perception that the IPA click letters of the Woodburn transcription portray the Hadza language as bizarre, when the Hadza people already have difficulties with being marginalized and a perception that they are not proper human beings, and the practical issue that the ubiquitous apostrophe of the Woodburn transcription makes it impractical for extended use. The apostrophes are generally omitted by those Hadza who have learned it, with the resulting texts often being unintelligible even to their authors; when the apostrophes are written, they greatly slow down the pace of writing. In the Anyawire orthography, doubled consonants and vowels are used for glottalized/ejective consonants and glottal stop, with the apostrophe only being used for the Swahili convention of ⟨ngʼ⟩ for /ŋ/.

The Anyawire orthography is used alongside the IPA in this article for accessibility with the dictionary. For clarity, an apostrophe will be retained for glottal stop between unlike vowels, for e.g. ''ae'' /ae/ vs ''aʼe'' /aʔe/. In practice, the Hadza are more likely to use epenthetic glides between vowels in hiatus, for e.g. ''aye'' /ae/ vs ''ae'' /aʔe/.

=== Phonology ===
Hadza syllable structure is limited to CVN in native words. There are no vowel-initial roots, unless ''h'' is analyzed as an allophone of zero. Syllable-coda N surfaces as a homorganic nasal when a following consonant has a place of articulation to assimilate to, and as nasalization of the vowel before a glottal consonant (glottal stop and ''h''/zero) and pre-pausa. Coda N appears allophonically before voiced or glottalized nasal clicks. A moraic (syllabic?) nasal is also found word-initially in loans from Bantu and Datooga, in which case it may have a different pitch than the following vowel, or may be preceded by an epenthetic vowel; such nasals are analyzed here as NCV sequences rather than as a series of prenasalized consonants. Phonetically, initial #NCV may also occur when the hV syllable of an #hVC₂V- word is elided and C₂ is a glottalized nasal click.

==== Stress and tone ====
Salient stress and pitch is not restricted to a particular syllable. There are no known minimal pairs, grammatical or lexical, for contrastive stress or tone. Minimal pairs claimed in the literature have turned out to either not be distinct or to not be minimal pairs. It may be that some loanwords retain their tone from their source language.

==== Vowels ====
There are five phonemic vowels, which are close to cardinal [a e i o u].

{| class="wikitable" style=text-align:center
|+Hadza vowels
| style="background: white" |
! Front
! Central
! Back
|-
! High
| i || || u
|-
! Mid
| e || || o
|-
! Low
| || a ||
|}

Phonetic nasal vowels, which are not common except before a consonant, are here analyzed as /VN/.

Phonetic long vowels are often sequences, as in ''kaha'' [kaː] ~ [kaɦa] 'to climb'. In some words, however, there is no allomorph with [ɦ], as in ''bôko'' [boːko] 'she' (forms a minimal pair with ''boko'' [boko] 'to be ill'). There is no known minimal set to establish long /Vː/ as distinct from a /VV/ sequence.

The mid vowels /e, o/ tend to rise when a high vowel, /i, u/, occurs in the following syllable, and /e, o/ may merge with /i, u/ in that position. However, such assimilation tends to be optional, even in suffixed pronouns such as ''onebii'' [ʔone̝biʔi] ~ ''unibii'' [ʔunibiʔi] 'we' (masculine, inclusive).

/u/ is relatively uncommon except in loans or due to vowel-height assimilation, and does not occur in grammatical morphemes unless the morpheme has a second syllable with vowel /i/.

Vowels tend to devoice pre-pausa and after a voiceless consonant. In the highly frequent pattern of word-final -V₁ʔV₁ (where the two vowels are the same, found in half of all grammatical suffixes and clitics though not frequently elsewhere), the vowel and preceding glottal stop tend to elide completely, whether pre-pausa or before another word.

==== Consonants ====
Hadza has at least 50 productive syllable onsets and several other marginal consonants.

{| class="wikitable" style=text-align:center
|+Principal Hadza consonants (Parentheses: loans. Dark background: may follow a nasal coda.)
! rowspan=2 colspan=2 |
! rowspan=2 | Labial
! rowspan=2 colspan=2 | (Denti-) alveolar
! rowspan=2 | (Post-) alveolar
! rowspan=2 | Palatal
! colspan=2 | Post-velar
! rowspan=2 | Glottal/ placeless
|- class=small
! plain
! labialized
|-
! rowspan=4 | Click
! Aspirated
|
| colspan=2 style="background: silver" | ǀʰ
| style="background: silver" |ǃʰ
| style="background: LightGray" |ǁʰ
| colspan=3 rowspan=4 style="background: white" |
|-
! Tenuis
|
| colspan=2 style="background: silver" | ǀ
| style="background: Gainsboro" |ǃ
| style="background: Gainsboro" |ǁ
|-
! Voiced nasal
|
| colspan=2 | ⁿǀ
| ⁿǃ
| ⁿǁ
|-
! Glottalized nasal
|
| colspan=2 | ⁿǀˀ
| ⁿǃˀ
| ⁿǁˀ
|-
! rowspan=5 | Plosive / affricate
|-
! Ejective
| pʼ
| colspan=2| t͜sʼ
| t͜ʃʼ
| c͜ʎ̥˔ʼ
| k͜xʼ
| k͜xʷʼ
| style="background: white" |
|-
! Aspirated
| style="background: silver" |pʰ
| style="background: silver" |tʰ
| style="background: silver" |t͜sʰ
| style="background: silver" |t͜ʃʰ
| c͜ʎ̥˔ʰ
| style="background: silver" |kʰ
| style="background: silver" |kʷʰ
|
|-
! Tenuis
| style="background: silver" |p
| style="background: silver" |t
| style="background: silver" |t͜s
| style="background: silver" |t͜ʃ
| c͜ʎ̥˔
| style="background: silver" |k
| style="background: silver" |kʷ
| style="background: silver" |ʔ
|-
! Voiced
| b
| (d)
| (d͜z)
| (d͜ʒ)
|
| (ɡ)
| (ɡʷ)
| style="background: white" |
|-
! colspan=2| Nasal
| m
| colspan=2| n
| colspan=2| (ɲ)
| (ŋ)
| (ŋʷ)
| //ƞ//
|-
! colspan=2 | Fricative
| (fʷ)
| ɬ
| s
| ʃ
|
|
|
|
|-
! colspan=2 | Sonorant
|
| colspan=2 | ɺ
|
| j
|
| w
| style="background: silver" | ɦ (zero?)
|}

Consonants in parentheses are thought to be loans, though the voiced obstruents at least are well-integrated and may be spreading to native roots.

Consonants with a grey background may follow a coda nasal in the preceding syllable. (That is, they may be C₂ in a CVNCV pattern.) /ǃ/ and /ǁ/ (lighter grey) are not attested in this position, but it is suspected these may be accidental gaps, given that only two roots are known with /ǀ/ after a nasal coda and that the gaps have not yet been investigated in the field. However, the only known case of /ƞǁʰ/, though it was clear when elicited, needs to be confirmed with additional speakers, so it's possible that the constraint against pulmonic laterals after a nasal coda extends to clicks.

The voice-onset time of consonants is reduced after a nasal coda: [[tenuis]] consonants may be partially or completely voiced, and the aspiration of aspirated consonants may be reduced or lost. This is true of clicks as well as of plosives and affricates. A /b/~/p/ distinction has not been found in this position despite /b/ being native.

Aspirated consonants may only be distinct in the first several syllables of a word. Many speakers distinguish aspirated plosives in only a few words, but maintain a robust distinction for affricates and clicks. The reason for this asymmetry is unknown.

The glottalized nasal clicks surface as e.g. [ǃʔ] post-pausa and often [ŋ͡nʔǃ] intervocalically. Accounts differ as to whether there is voiceless nasal airflow in post-pausa position.

Aspirated clicks may have a delayed and clearly audible posterior release, e.g. [ǃʰ] ~ [ǃkʰ]. This release has the same post-velar articulation as the k-series of plosives.

The ǃ-clicks tend to be weakly articulated, though, so far as is known, not slapped as has been reported from Sandawe. When intervocalic, /ⁿǃ/ may surface as or nearly as [ŋ͡n]. The ǁ-clicks, on the other hand, are typically quite salient.

Among the ejectives, /pʼ/ is uncommon. Many vary between affricate and fricative realizations. [sʼ, ʃʼ, xʼ, xʷʼ] have been noted. /k͜xʼ/ and /k͜xʷʼ/ have plosive allophones [kʼ, kʷʼ], and at least /k͜xʼ/ has a lateral allophone [k͜ʟ̝̊ʼ]. /t͜sʼ/ may be the ejective correlate of both the /t/ and /t͜s/ series of pulmonic consonants.

The palatal lateral affricates may be pronounced with an alveolar onset, e.g. [t͜ʎ̥˔], or without involving the front of the tongue, e.g. [c͜ʎ̥˔]. Speakers express no preference when hearing these articulations. The fricative /ɬ/ is alveolar; a palatal articulation is not accepted. Given that the fricative may be pronounced as an affricate in some prosodic situations, this means that there is a three-way phonetic place contrast among laterals: [t͜ɬ] vs [t͜ʎ̥˔ ~ c͜ʎ̥˔] and [t͜ʎ̥˔ʼ ~ c͜ʎ̥˔ʼ] vs [k͜ʟ̝̊ʼ].

/ɺ/ is typically realized as [l] post-pausa and [ɾ] elsewhere, though [ɺ] is not uncommon. It also tends toward [l] when it occurs as both C1 and C2, as in /ɺoɺa/ (sp. rabbit).

[ɦ] and zero may be allophones. If so, and given that vowel-initial suffixes may elide a stem-final vowel, it would be simplest to posit that the phoneme is zero and [ɦ] an allophone of zero, rather than that /ɦ/ is elided under some conditions. A predictive conditioning environment for the presence or absence of [ɦ] has not been discovered, but prosody may play a role; even vowel-initial suffixes and clitics may be realized with an initial [ɦ] when given contrastive prosody. Assimilation or bilingualism may be involved in the case of loanwords. For instance, an Isanzu loan for 'snake' was recorded as ''ihato'' /ʔiɦato/ at the beginning of the 20th century (and perhaps in an Isanzu-biligual area) but as ''iyato'' /ʔiato/ at the beginning of the 21st century in Mangola.

The glides /j/ and /w/ are not distinctive next to front (/i, e/) and back (/o, u/) vowels, respectively. It is possible that they are allophones of /i/ and /u/. When they occur word-initially, purported /jV, wV/ often appear as [ʔijV] and [ʔuwV]. This is true even of a ubiquitous sequential auxiliary (''yamo'' [jamo] ~ ''iamo'' [ʔiamo] in the 3msg posterior (past?) tense). /j/ does however occur in two object suffixes where such variation has not been noted. In the anthropological and linguistic literature, glides are often written between unlike vowels. For example, the 3msg non-past copula clitic ''-ha'' /ɦa/ is often transcribed 'ya' after a front vowel and 'wa' after a back vowel.

===== Marginal consonants =====

A labial click, variously reported as [ⁿʘʷ] or [ⁿʘˀ], is found in a single root, ''mcwa-'', that is mimetic for a kiss and often made with an accompanying kiss to the hand. ''Mcwa-'' may be allomorphic with ''ncuwa-'' /ⁿǀua/ with a dental click.

A trill [r] is used by some speakers in some words, such as ''karro'' /karo/ (hunting/sighting name for a female giraffe), perhaps reflecting the pronunciation of the word in the language it was borrowed from. It is replaced with /ɺ/ (''karo'' /kaɺo/) by other speakers.

An implosive [ɓ] is used by some speakers in some words, perhaps reflecting the pronunciation of the word in the source language, though in some instances it might co-occur with ejectives, which would be difficult to explain away as a loan (e.g. ''beggawuko'' /bekx’auko/ 'elephant', apparently [ɓekx’auko] in some recordings). It is replaced with /b/ by other speakers. Other implosives have not been noted.

A fricative [x] occurs lexicalized in an expletive, ''ahho'' [ʔaxo], where otherwise the root is ''akho'' /ʔakʰo/ 'genitals'. (/kʰ/ is commonly realized as [kx].)

Word-initial /mu/ and occasionally /mo/ are optionally realized as syllabic [m̩], for example in the common greeting ''mutana'' ~ ''mtana''. This is a Bantu alternation.

/v/ may occasionally be found in loans, as in mimetic ''vûvuko'' ~ ''fûfuko'' /vuːvuko ~ fuːfuko/ 'propeller toy', though it is normally replaced with /f/. [v] (or perhaps [β]) has been reported for /b/, for example in Bleek's transcriptions of the plural suffixes ''-bee'' and ''-bii'' as 've' and 'vi'.

===== Phonotactics =====
All clicks within a root must be the same, as in /ǀikiɺiƞǀa/ 'pinkie'. Although there is a tendency for clicks and ejectives to occur as C1, in a quarter of click words the click occurs as C2.

Clicks and ejectives may co-occur, but always in that order. When they co-occur, there appears to be some sibilant harmony, with a strong tendency for /t͜sʼ/ to occur with denti-alveolar clicks and for /c͜ʎ̥˔ʼ/ to occur with lateral clicks.

When an aspirated consonant occurs more than once in a word, the first tends to deaspirate (Grassmann's/Katupha's Law, though generally optional). A coda N may block deaspiration, as in the allomorphs /peǃeǃʰe/ ~ /peƞǃʰeƞǃʰe/ 'to rush'. NC sequences may loose their nasal segment as well, as in /ƞtʰaɺaƞtʰaɺaʔabiʔi/ ~ /taɺaƞtʰaɺaʔabiʔi/ '(arrow) barbs'. It is not clear to what extent these patterns hold with two different aspirated consonants.

===Swadesh lists===
Only roots are given. For example, the word for 'name', given as the root ''akhana'' below, is actually feminine plural ''akhanabee''.

====Wichmann & Holman basic 40-word list (ordered by stability)====

#louse ''ccamazzi'' /ⁿǀˀamat͜sʼi/<ref>cf. ''ccezze'' /ⁿǀˀet͜s’e/ 'tick'</ref>
#two ''piye'' /pie/, ''konxa'' /koⁿǁa/ (verb)
#water ''ati'' /ʔati/ (mpl; msg = 'rain, river')
#ear ''hajjapitchi'' /ɦat͜ʃ’apit͜ʃʰi/<ref>from ''hazzape'' /ɦat͜s’ape/ 'leaf'?</ref>
#to die ''taxxi'' /taⁿǁˀi/, ''misi'' /misi/ (Datooga?)
#I *one /ʔone/, */-ko/<ref>If *-ko-a > /-kʷa/ rather than *-kʷa-ʔV > /-koʔo/.</ref>
#liver ''xxe'' /ⁿǁˀe/
#eye ''akhwa'' /ʔakʷʰa/
#hand, arm ''ukhwa'' /ʔukʷʰa/
#hear ''nxaʼe'' /ⁿǁaʔe/
#tree ''zziti'' /t͜s’iti/
#fish ''ccama'' /ⁿǀˀama/, ''ccara'' /ⁿǀˀaɺa/
#name ''akhana'' /ʔakʰana/
#stone ''haqqa'' /ɦaⁿǃˀa/
#tooth ''aha'' /ʔaɦa/
#breast ''iriba'' /ʔiɺiba/ ('breasts, milk'. Cushitic); ''ggazza'' /k͜x’at͜s’a/ ('flesh at sternum')
#thou ''the'' /tʰe/, /-en-/ (m), /-n-/ (f)
#path ''yeke'' /jeke/
#bone ''midla'' /mic͜ʎ̥˔’a/ (cf. Dahalo)
#tongue ''ncata'' /ⁿǀata/
#skin ''ahu'' /ʔaɦu/
#night ''zzifi'' /t͜s’ifi/ (m; f = 'day')
#leaf ''hazzape'' /ɦat͜s’ape/
#rain = 'water' (msg = 'rain, river'; mpl = 'water')
#kill ''xô'' /ǁoː/
#blood ''athama'' /ʔatʰama/
#horn ''roo'' /ɺoʔo/
#person ''haza'' /ɦad͜za/ (human), ''unu'' /ʔunu/ (person)
#knee ''guringuri'' /ɡuɺiƞɡuɺi/ ~ ''gurunguri'' /ɡuɺuƞɡuɺi/ (Cushitic? pan-African)
#one ''itchâme'' /ʔit͜ʃʰaːme/
#nose ''intawe'' /ʔiƞtʰawe/
#full ''ggaʼe'' /k͜x’aʔe/, *cco- /ⁿǀˀo-/
#come ''za'' /d͜za/ (Bantu), ''botco'' /bot͜ʃo/ (stem of imperative)
#star ''ntsa'' /ƞt͜sʰa/, ''sa'' /sa/ (Cushitic?)<ref>Anyawire et al. (2013) only found ''ntsa''. Tucker et al. (1977) report ''sa'' 'star', and Woodburn confirms the form he knows does not have a nasal onset. /ƞ/ + /sa/ would generate /ƞt͜sʰa/. Indeed, speakers do not care if the latter is written ''ntsa'' or ''nsa''. There are several Cushitic loanwords that have an onset that varies as C ~ NC in Hadza where the source language is only reconstructed with C.</ref>
#mountain ''xxudle'' /ⁿǁˀuc͜ʎ̥˔’e/
#fire ''zzoko'' /t͜s’oko/
#we (exclusive) ''ô'' /ʔoː/, /-j-/
#to drink ''fa'' /fʷa/
#to see ''chî'' /ǀʰiː/ ~ ''cî'' /ǀiː/
#bark ''heggwa'' /ɦek͜xʷ’a/
#new ''zana'' /d͜zana/<ref>from ''za'' 'come'?</ref>
#dog ''xhaano'' /ǁʰaʔano/, ''tîngi'' /tiːƞki/
#sun ''isho'' /ʔiʃo/

====Other Swadesh-100 words====

===Notes===
<references/>

===Bibliography===

* Mariamu Anyawire, G.G. Bala, Kirk Miller (ed.) & Bonny Sands (2013). ''A Hadza Lexicon'' (ms).
* Roger Blench (2008). [https://web.archive.org/web/20110721180216/http://www.rogerblench.info/Language%20data/Khoesan/Blench%20paper%20Riezlern%202008.pdf Hadza Animal Names.] Paper presented at the 3rd International Symposium on Khoisan Languages and Linguistics, Riezlern, 7–9 July 2008.
* Niklas Edenmyr (2004). [https://web.archive.org/web/20070706040409/http://www.african.gu.se/aa/pdfs/aa04003.pdf The semantics of Hadza gender assignment: a few notes from the field.] ''Africa & Asia'', no. 4, Department of Oriental and African languages, Göteborg University, 3–19.
* Edward Elderkin (1978). Loans in Hadza: internal evidence from consonants. ''Occasional Papers'' 3, Dar es Salaam.
* Peter Ladefoged, Ian Maddieson & Bonny Sands (1991). [http://archive.phonetics.ucla.edu/Language/HTS/hts.html Hadza wordlist and sound files]. UCLA Phonetics Lab Archive.
* ———— (1993). [https://www.academia.edu/17743030/The_phonetic_structures_of_Hadza The Phonetic Structures of Hadza.] In [http://repositories.cdlib.org/uclaling/wpp/No84/ ''UCLA Working Papers in Phonetics'' No. 84: ''Fieldwork Studies in Targeted Languages'',] 67–87.
* Kirk Miller (2008). [https://www.academia.edu/36533859/Hadza_grammar_notes Hadza Grammar Notes.] Paper presented at the 3rd International Symposium on Khoisan Languages and Linguistics, Riezlern, 7–9 July 2008.
* ———— (2009). [https://www.academia.edu/36533860/Highlights_of_Hadza_Fieldwork Highlights of Hadza fieldwork.] Paper presented at the 83rd Annual Meeting of the Linguistic Society of America, San Francisco, 8–11 January 2009.
* ———— (2016). Hadza Kinship Terms. In Shah & Brenzinger, eds., ''Khoisan Languages and Linguistics: Proceedings of the 5th International Symposium, July 13–17, 2014, Riezlern/Kleinwalsertal.'' Cologne: Rüdiger Köppe, 277–333.
* Bonny Sands (1998). The Linguistic Relationship between Hadza and Khoisan. In Schladt, Matthias (ed.) ''Language, Identity, and Conceptualization among the Khoisan'' (Quellen zur Khoisan-Forschung Vol. 15), Cologne: Rüdiger Köppe, 265–283.
* ———— (2013). Phonetics and phonology: Hadza; Tonology: Hadza; Morphology: Hadza; Syntax: Hadza. In Rainer Vossen, ed., ''The Khoesan Languages''. Oxford: Routledge.
*Sergei Starostin. [http://starling.rinet.ru/cgi-bin/response.cgi?root=new100&morpho=0&basename=new100\hdz\hdz&limit=-1 Hadza basic lexicon.] Global Lexicostatistical Database. [much of the parsing is speculation, and Bleek's posthumous data is unreliable]
* A.N. Tucker, M.A. Bryan & James Woodburn as co-author for Hadza (1977). The East African Click Languages: A Phonetic Comparison. In J.G. Moehlig, Franz Rottland, Bernd Heine, eds, ''Zur Sprachgeschichte und Ethnohistorie in Afrika.'' Berlin: Dietrich Diener.

[[Category:En]]
[[Category:Single language]]

Hadza

2019-04-12T11:25:20Z

Kirk Miller:

{{InfoboxLanguage
|Language = Hadza
|Autonym = ''Haza, hazane''
|Pronunciation = ɦad͜za
|Ethn15name = Hadza
|Countries = Tanzania
|OfficialLg = none
|OLACname = Hadza
|WALSLoc = 3°45′ S, 35°10′ E
|Speakers = 1,000
|Family = [[isolate]]
|Genus = Hadza
|WritingSyst = none
|ISO3 = hts
}}

Hadza is a language isolate of Tanzania.

=== Location and Speakers ===
Hadza is spoken along the entire eastern shore of alkaline Lake Eyasi, which lies at the base of the Serengeti Plateau in central Tanzania, from Mount Oldeani in the north (just south of Ngorongoro Crater) to the Isanzu agricultural areas in the south. They do not live at altitudes much above 1500 meters, as they do not build shelters that will ward off the night chill at higher elevations.

There is a small population of Hadza to the west of the lake, in ''Dunduina'' /duƞtuina/<ref>This article uses the old IPA letter for a moraic nasal, ⟨ƞ⟩, which was retired because it has no specific phonetic value. In Hadza, the moraic nasal is homorganic with a following consonant.</ref> 'Sukumaland', but their number seems to be decreasing and many only speak Sukuma and Swahili.

There are approximately 1,000 speakers of Hadza, most now bilingual in Swahili. Other second languages include [[Isanzu]] in the south, [[Sukuma]] in the west, and to a lesser degree [[Datooga]] in the center (e.g. near the Yaeda Valley to the southeast of the lake) and [[Iraqw]] on the margins of the Iraqw highlands. The northern Hadza area, around the town of Mangola, was largely monolingual until the introduction of Standard Swahili after independence, though there are loanwords from colonial-era 'upcountry' Swahili.

As of 2005, about 40% of Hadza lived as full-time hunter-gatherers, and language transmission was robust in the areas east of the lake, but since then there have been reports of children speaking Swahili east of the lake, perhaps due to the influx of ''Dunduinabee'' abandoning their territory in the west.

=== Classification ===
Hadza is a [[language isolate]]. Greenberg classified it as [[Khoisan]] due to its use of [[click consonant]]s. If it were not for the clicks, it's likely that Hadza would have been classified as [[Cushitic]]. Hadza and Sandawe have very similar phonetic inventories and phonotactics, suggesting an old sprachbund. However, the only detected commonalities in vocabulary are old Cushitic loans or perhaps passed through Cushitic. Much of the borrowed Cushitic vocabulary is consistent with reconstructions of proto-West Rift.

=== Dialects ===
There do not appear to be any dialects of Hadza, presumably due to the mobility of its speakers. There are some regional differences of vocabulary, however, and speakers note that there are many more Bantu loans in the south.

=== Name ===
"Hadza" is the most common name in the literature. ''Haza'' /ɦad͜za/ simply means 'human being'. The derivative "Hadzane" (/ɦad͜zane/ 'in the manner of the people') is sometimes encountered as the name of the language. The feminine plural ''hazabee'' /ɦad͜zabeʔe/ may be used for the people, though it is usually spelled "Hadzabe" due to devoicing of the final vowel. (The feminine is the inclusive gender in the plural.) "Hadzapi" is the masculine-plural copular form ''hazaphii'' /ɦad͜zapʰiʔi/. "Hatza" and "Hatsa" are older German spellings.

"Tindiga" is from the Swahili name, ''watindiga'' 'people of the marsh grass', presumably named for the large spring in Mangola. The forms ''wahadza'', ''kihadza'' are found instead of ''watindiga'', ''kitindiga'' in recent Swahili publications, but the Hadza do not consider ''watindiga'' to be pejorative. "Kindiga" may be a cognate from one of the local Bantu languages. "Kangeju" (pronounced ''Kangeyu'') is an obsolete German name of unclear origin. The name "Wahi" (pronounced ''Vahi'') found for the western Hadza in Kohl-Larsen is a Sukuma name for the Hadza.

=== Orthography ===
Hadza does not have a written tradition. Two orthographies have seen recent use: the phonetic transcription of Tucker, Bryan & Woodburn (1977), used with some modification by Woodburn and other anthropologists, and the practical orthography of Anyawire et al. (2013). As it is based on the IPA, the Woodburn transcription is more accessible to linguists, while the Anyawire orthography is closer to those of Sandawe and other written languages of Tanzania. There is evidently some political controversy over the choice of orthography, with Hadza reporting they have been told that if they use the Anyawire orthography they will loose their land. There are two motivations for the Anyawire orthography: the perception that the IPA click letters of the Woodburn transcription portray the Hadza language as bizarre, when the Hadza people already have difficulties with being marginalized and a perception that they are not proper human beings, and the practical issue that the ubiquitous apostrophe of the Woodburn transcription makes it impractical for extended use. The apostrophes are generally omitted by those Hadza who have learned it, with the resulting texts often being unintelligible even to their authors; when the apostrophes are written, they greatly slow down the pace of writing. In the Anyawire orthography, doubled consonants and vowels are used for glottalized/ejective consonants and glottal stop, with the apostrophe only being used for the Swahili convention of ⟨ngʼ⟩ for /ŋ/.

The Anyawire orthography is used alongside the IPA in this article for accessibility with the dictionary. For clarity, an apostrophe will be retained for glottal stop between unlike vowels, for e.g. ''ae'' /ae/ vs ''aʼe'' /aʔe/. In practice, the Hadza are more likely to use epenthetic glides between vowels in hiatus, for e.g. ''aye'' /ae/ vs ''ae'' /aʔe/.

=== Phonology ===
Hadza syllable structure is limited to CVN in native words. There are no vowel-initial roots, unless ''h'' is analyzed as an allophone of zero. Syllable-coda N surfaces as a homorganic nasal when a following consonant has a place of articulation to assimilate to, and as nasalization of the vowel before a glottal consonant (glottal stop and ''h''/zero) and pre-pausa. Coda N appears allophonically before voiced or glottalized nasal clicks. A moraic (syllabic?) nasal is also found word-initially in loans from Bantu and Datooga, in which case it may have a different pitch than the following vowel, or may be preceded by an epenthetic vowel; such nasals are analyzed here as NCV sequences rather than as a series of prenasalized consonants. Phonetically, initial #NCV may also occur when the hV syllable of an #hVC₂V- word is elided and C₂ is a glottalized nasal click.

==== Stress and tone ====
Salient stress and pitch is not restricted to a particular syllable. There are no known minimal pairs, grammatical or lexical, for contrastive stress or tone. Minimal pairs claimed in the literature have turned out to either not be distinct or to not be minimal pairs. It may be that some loanwords retain their tone from their source language.

==== Vowels ====
There are five phonemic vowels, which are close to cardinal [a e i o u].

{| class="wikitable" style=text-align:center
|+Hadza vowels
| style="background: white" |
! Front
! Central
! Back
|-
! High
| i || || u
|-
! Mid
| e || || o
|-
! Low
| || a ||
|}

Phonetic nasal vowels, which are not common except before a consonant, are here analyzed as /VN/.

Phonetic long vowels are often sequences, as in ''kaha'' [kaː] ~ [kaɦa] 'to climb'. In some words, however, there is no allomorph with [ɦ], as in ''bôko'' [boːko] 'she' (forms a minimal pair with ''boko'' [boko] 'to be ill'). There is no known minimal set to establish long /Vː/ as distinct from a /VV/ sequence.

The mid vowels /e, o/ tend to rise when a high vowel, /i, u/, occurs in the following syllable, and /e, o/ may merge with /i, u/ in that position. However, such assimilation tends to be optional, even in suffixed pronouns such as ''onebii'' [ʔone̝biʔi] ~ ''unibii'' [ʔunibiʔi] 'we' (masculine, inclusive).

/u/ is relatively uncommon except in loans or due to vowel-height assimilation, and does not occur in grammatical morphemes unless the morpheme has a second syllable with vowel /i/.

Vowels tend to devoice pre-pausa and after a voiceless consonant. In the highly frequent pattern of word-final -V₁ʔV₁ (where the two vowels are the same, found in half of all grammatical suffixes and clitics though not frequently elsewhere), the vowel and preceding glottal stop tend to elide completely, whether pre-pausa or before another word.

==== Consonants ====
Hadza has at least 50 productive syllable onsets and several other marginal consonants.

{| class="wikitable" style=text-align:center
|+Principal Hadza consonants (Parentheses: loans. Dark background: may follow a nasal coda.)
! rowspan=2 colspan=2 |
! rowspan=2 | Labial
! rowspan=2 colspan=2 | (Denti-) alveolar
! rowspan=2 | (Post-) alveolar
! rowspan=2 | Palatal
! colspan=2 | Post-velar
! rowspan=2 | Glottal/ placeless
|- class=small
! plain
! labialized
|-
! rowspan=4 | Click
! Aspirated
|
| colspan=2 style="background: silver" | ǀʰ
| style="background: silver" |ǃʰ
| style="background: LightGray" |ǁʰ
| colspan=3 rowspan=4 style="background: white" |
|-
! Tenuis
|
| colspan=2 style="background: silver" | ǀ
| style="background: Gainsboro" |ǃ
| style="background: Gainsboro" |ǁ
|-
! Voiced nasal
|
| colspan=2 | ⁿǀ
| ⁿǃ
| ⁿǁ
|-
! Glottalized nasal
|
| colspan=2 | ⁿǀˀ
| ⁿǃˀ
| ⁿǁˀ
|-
! rowspan=5 | Plosive / affricate
|-
! Ejective
| pʼ
| colspan=2| t͜sʼ
| t͜ʃʼ
| c͜ʎ̥˔ʼ
| k͜xʼ
| k͜xʷʼ
| style="background: white" |
|-
! Aspirated
| style="background: silver" |pʰ
| style="background: silver" |tʰ
| style="background: silver" |t͜sʰ
| style="background: silver" |t͜ʃʰ
| c͜ʎ̥˔ʰ
| style="background: silver" |kʰ
| style="background: silver" |kʷʰ
|
|-
! Tenuis
| style="background: silver" |p
| style="background: silver" |t
| style="background: silver" |t͜s
| style="background: silver" |t͜ʃ
| c͜ʎ̥˔
| style="background: silver" |k
| style="background: silver" |kʷ
| style="background: silver" |ʔ
|-
! Voiced
| b
| (d)
| (d͜z)
| (d͜ʒ)
|
| (ɡ)
| (ɡʷ)
| style="background: white" |
|-
! colspan=2| Nasal
| m
| colspan=2| n
| colspan=2| (ɲ)
| (ŋ)
| (ŋʷ)
| //ƞ//
|-
! colspan=2 | Fricative
| (fʷ)
| ɬ
| s
| ʃ
|
|
|
|
|-
! colspan=2 | Sonorant
|
| colspan=2 | ɺ
|
| j
|
| w
| style="background: silver" | ɦ (zero?)
|}

Consonants in parentheses are thought to be loans, though the voiced obstruents at least are well-integrated and may be spreading to native roots.

Consonants with a grey background may follow a coda nasal in the preceding syllable. (That is, they may be C₂ in a CVNCV pattern.) /ǃ/ and /ǁ/ (lighter grey) are not attested in this position, but it is suspected these may be accidental gaps, given that only two roots are known with /ǀ/ after a nasal coda and that the gaps have not yet been investigated in the field. However, the only known case of /ƞǁʰ/, though it was clear when elicited, needs to be confirmed with additional speakers, so it's possible that the constraint against pulmonic laterals after a nasal coda extends to clicks.

The voice-onset time of consonants is reduced after a nasal coda: [[tenuis]] consonants may be partially or completely voiced, and the aspiration of aspirated consonants may be reduced or lost. This is true of clicks as well as of plosives and affricates. A /b/~/p/ distinction has not been found in this position despite /b/ being native.

Aspirated consonants may only be distinct in the first several syllables of a word. Many speakers distinguish aspirated plosives in only a few words, but maintain a robust distinction for affricates and clicks. The reason for this asymmetry is unknown.

The glottalized nasal clicks surface as e.g. [ǃʔ] post-pausa and often [ŋ͡nʔǃ] intervocalically. Accounts differ as to whether there is voiceless nasal airflow in post-pausa position.

Aspirated clicks may have a delayed and clearly audible posterior release, e.g. [ǃʰ] ~ [ǃkʰ]. This release has the same post-velar articulation as the k-series of plosives.

The ǃ-clicks tend to be weakly articulated, though, so far as is known, not slapped as has been reported from Sandawe. When intervocalic, /ⁿǃ/ may surface as or nearly as [ŋ͡n]. The ǁ-clicks, on the other hand, are typically quite salient.

Among the ejectives, /pʼ/ is uncommon. Many vary between affricate and fricative realizations. [sʼ, ʃʼ, xʼ, xʷʼ] have been noted. /k͜xʼ/ and /k͜xʷʼ/ have plosive allophones [kʼ, kʷʼ], and at least /k͜xʼ/ has a lateral allophone [k͜ʟ̝̊ʼ]. /t͜sʼ/ may be the ejective correlate of both the /t/ and /t͜s/ series of pulmonic consonants.

The palatal lateral affricates may be pronounced with an alveolar onset, e.g. [t͜ʎ̥˔], or without involving the front of the tongue, e.g. [c͜ʎ̥˔]. Speakers express no preference when hearing these articulations. The fricative /ɬ/ is alveolar; a palatal articulation is not accepted. Given that the fricative may be pronounced as an affricate in some prosodic situations, this means that there is a three-way phonetic place contrast among laterals: [t͜ɬ] vs [t͜ʎ̥˔ ~ c͜ʎ̥˔] and [t͜ʎ̥˔ʼ ~ c͜ʎ̥˔ʼ] vs [k͜ʟ̝̊ʼ].

/ɺ/ is typically realized as [l] post-pausa and [ɾ] elsewhere, though [ɺ] is not uncommon. It also tends toward [l] when it occurs as both C1 and C2, as in /ɺoɺa/ (sp. rabbit).

[ɦ] and zero may be allophones. If so, and given that vowel-initial suffixes may elide a stem-final vowel, it would be simplest to posit that the phoneme is zero and [ɦ] an allophone of zero, rather than that /ɦ/ is elided under some conditions. A predictive conditioning environment for the presence or absence of [ɦ] has not been discovered, but prosody may play a role; even vowel-initial suffixes and clitics may be realized with an initial [ɦ] when given contrastive prosody. Assimilation or bilingualism may be involved in the case of loanwords. For instance, an Isanzu loan for 'snake' was recorded as ''ihato'' /ʔiɦato/ at the beginning of the 20th century (and perhaps in an Isanzu-biligual area) but as ''iyato'' /ʔiato/ at the beginning of the 21st century in Mangola.

The glides /j/ and /w/ are not distinctive next to front (/i, e/) and back (/o, u/) vowels, respectively. It is possible that they are allophones of /i/ and /u/. When they occur word-initially, purported /jV, wV/ often appear as [ʔijV] and [ʔuwV]. This is true even of a ubiquitous sequential auxiliary (''yamo'' [jamo] ~ ''iamo'' [ʔiamo] in the 3msg posterior (past?) tense). /j/ does however occur in two object suffixes where such variation has not been noted. In the anthropological and linguistic literature, glides are often written between unlike vowels. For example, the 3msg non-past copula clitic ''-ha'' /ɦa/ is often transcribed 'ya' after a front vowel and 'wa' after a back vowel.

===== Marginal consonants =====

A labial click, variously reported as [ⁿʘʷ] or [ⁿʘˀ], is found in a single root, ''mcwa-'', that is mimetic for a kiss and often made with an accompanying kiss to the hand. ''Mcwa-'' may be allomorphic with ''ncuwa-'' /ⁿǀua/ with a dental click.

A trill [r] is used by some speakers in some words, such as ''karro'' /karo/ (hunting/sighting name for a female giraffe), perhaps reflecting the pronunciation of the word in the language it was borrowed from. It is replaced with /ɺ/ (''karo'' /kaɺo/) by other speakers.

An implosive [ɓ] is used by some speakers in some words, perhaps reflecting the pronunciation of the word in the source language, though in some instances it might co-occur with ejectives, which would be difficult to explain away as a loan (e.g. ''beggawuko'' /bekx’auko/ 'elephant', apparently [ɓekx’auko] in some recordings). It is replaced with /b/ by other speakers. Other implosives have not been noted.

A fricative [x] occurs lexicalized in an expletive, ''ahho'' [ʔaxo], where otherwise the root is ''akho'' /ʔakʰo/ 'genitals'. (/kʰ/ is commonly realized as [kx].)

Word-initial /mu/ and occasionally /mo/ are optionally realized as syllabic [m̩], for example in the common greeting ''mutana'' ~ ''mtana''. This is a Bantu alternation.

/v/ may occasionally be found in loans, as in mimetic ''vûvuko'' ~ ''fûfuko'' /vuːvuko ~ fuːfuko/ 'propeller toy', though it is normally replaced with /f/. [v] (or perhaps [β]) has been reported for /b/, for example in Bleek's transcriptions of the plural suffixes ''-bee'' and ''-bii'' as 've' and 'vi'.

===== Phonotactics =====
All clicks within a root must be the same, as in /ǀikiɺiƞǀa/ 'pinkie'. Although there is a tendency for clicks and ejectives to occur as C1, in a quarter of click words the click occurs as C2.

Clicks and ejectives may co-occur, but always in that order. When they co-occur, there appears to be some sibilant harmony, with a strong tendency for /t͜sʼ/ to occur with denti-alveolar clicks and for /c͜ʎ̥˔ʼ/ to occur with lateral clicks.

When an aspirated consonant occurs more than once in a word, the first tends to deaspirate (Grassmann's/Katupha's Law, though generally optional). A coda N may block deaspiration, as in the allomorphs /peǃeǃʰe/ ~ /peƞǃʰeƞǃʰe/ 'to rush'. NC sequences may loose their nasal segment as well, as in /ƞtʰaɺaƞtʰaɺaʔabiʔi/ ~ /taɺaƞtʰaɺaʔabiʔi/ '(arrow) barbs'. It is not clear to what extent these patterns hold with two different aspirated consonants.

===Swadesh lists===
Only roots are given. For example, the word for 'name', given as the root ''akhana'' below, is actually feminine plural ''akhanabee''.

====Wichmann & Holman basic 40-word list (ordered by stability)====

#louse ''ccamazzi'' /ⁿǀˀamat͜sʼi/<ref>cf. ''ccezze'' /ⁿǀˀet͜s’e/ 'tick'</ref>
#two ''piye'' /pie/, ''konxa'' /koⁿǁa/ (verb)
#water ''ati'' /ʔati/ (mpl; msg = 'rain, river')
#ear ''hajjapitchi'' /ɦat͜ʃ’apit͜ʃʰi/<ref>from ''hazzape'' /ɦat͜s’ape/ 'leaf'?</ref>
#to die ''taxxi'' /taⁿǁˀi/, ''misi'' /misi/ (Datooga?)
#I *one /ʔone/, */-ko/<ref>If *-ko-a > /-kʷa/ rather than *-kʷa-ʔV > /-koʔo/.</ref>
#liver ''xxe'' /ⁿǁˀe/
#eye ''akhwa'' /ʔakʷʰa/
#hand, arm ''ukhwa'' /ʔukʷʰa/
#hear ''nxaʼe'' /ⁿǁaʔe/
#tree ''zziti'' /t͜s’iti/
#fish ''ccama'' /ⁿǀˀama/, ''ccara'' /ⁿǀˀaɺa/
#name ''akhana'' /ʔakʰana/
#stone ''haqqa'' /ɦaⁿǃˀa/
#tooth ''aha'' /ʔaɦa/
#breast ''iriba'' /ʔiɺiba/ ('breasts, milk'. Cushitic); ''ggazza'' /k͜x’at͜s’a/ ('flesh at sternum')
#thou ''the'' /tʰe/, /-en-/ (m), /-n-/ (f)
#path ''yeke'' /jeke/
#bone ''midla'' /mic͜ʎ̥˔’a/ (cf. Dahalo)
#tongue ''ncata'' /ⁿǀata/
#skin ''ahu'' /ʔaɦu/
#night ''zzifi'' /t͜s’ifi/ (m; f = 'day')
#leaf ''hazzape'' /ɦat͜s’ape/
#rain = 'water' (msg = 'rain, river'; mpl = 'water')
#kill ''xô'' /ǁoː/
#blood ''athama'' /ʔatʰama/
#horn ''roo'' /ɺoʔo/
#person ''haza'' /ɦad͜za/ (human), ''unu'' /ʔunu/ (person)
#knee ''guringuri'' /ɡuɺiƞɡuɺi/ ~ ''gurunguri'' /ɡuɺuƞɡuɺi/ (Cushitic? pan-African)
#one ''itchâme'' /ʔit͜ʃʰaːme/
#nose ''intawe'' /ʔiƞtʰawe/
#full ''ggaʼe'' /k͜x’aʔe/, *cco- /ⁿǀˀo-/
#come ''za'' /d͜za/ (Bantu), ''botco'' /bot͜ʃo/ (stem of imperative)
#star ''ntsa'' /ƞt͜sʰa/, ''sa'' /sa/ (Cushitic?)<ref>Anyawire et al. (2013) only found ''ntsa''. Tucker et al. (1977) report ''sa'' 'star', and Woodburn confirms the form he knows does not have a nasal onset. /ƞ/ + /sa/ would generate /ƞt͜sʰa/. Indeed, speakers do not care if the latter is written ''ntsa'' or ''nsa''. There are several Cushitic loanwords that have an onset that varies as C ~ NC in Hadza where the source language is only reconstructed with C.</ref>
#mountain ''xxudle'' /ⁿǁˀuc͜ʎ̥˔’e/
#fire ''zzoko'' /t͜s’oko/
#we (exclusive) ''ô'' /ʔoː/, /-j-/
#to drink ''fa'' /fʷa/
#to see ''chî'' /ǀʰiː/ ~ ''cî'' /ǀiː/
#bark ''heggwa'' /ɦek͜xʷ’a/
#new ''zana'' /d͜zana/<ref>from ''za'' 'come'?</ref>
#dog ''xhaano'' /ǁʰaʔano/, ''tîngi'' /tiːƞki/
#sun ''isho'' /ʔiʃo/

====Other Swadesh-100 words====

===Notes===
<references/>

===Bibliography===

* Mariamu Anyawire, G.G. Bala, Kirk Miller (ed.) & Bonny Sands (2013). ''A Hadza Lexicon'' (ms).
* Roger Blench (2008). [https://web.archive.org/web/20110721180216/http://www.rogerblench.info/Language%20data/Khoesan/Blench%20paper%20Riezlern%202008.pdf Hadza Animal Names.] Paper presented at the 3rd International Symposium on Khoisan Languages and Linguistics, Riezlern, 7–9 July 2008.
* Niklas Edenmyr (2004). [https://web.archive.org/web/20070706040409/http://www.african.gu.se/aa/pdfs/aa04003.pdf The semantics of Hadza gender assignment: a few notes from the field.] ''Africa & Asia'', no. 4, Department of Oriental and African languages, Göteborg University, 3–19.
* Edward Elderkin (1978). Loans in Hadza: internal evidence from consonants. ''Occasional Papers'' 3, Dar es Salaam.
* Peter Ladefoged, Ian Maddieson & Bonny Sands (1991). [http://archive.phonetics.ucla.edu/Language/HTS/hts.html Hadza wordlist and sound files]. UCLA Phonetics Lab Archive.
* ———— (1993). [https://www.academia.edu/17743030/The_phonetic_structures_of_Hadza The Phonetic Structures of Hadza.] In [http://repositories.cdlib.org/uclaling/wpp/No84/ ''UCLA Working Papers in Phonetics'' No. 84: ''Fieldwork Studies in Targeted Languages'',] 67–87.
* Kirk Miller (2008). [https://www.academia.edu/36533859/Hadza_grammar_notes Hadza Grammar Notes.] Paper presented at the 3rd International Symposium on Khoisan Languages and Linguistics, Riezlern, 7–9 July 2008.
* ———— (2009). [https://www.academia.edu/36533860/Highlights_of_Hadza_Fieldwork Highlights of Hadza fieldwork.] Paper presented at the 83rd Annual Meeting of the Linguistic Society of America, San Francisco, 8–11 January 2009.
* ———— (2016). Hadza Kinship Terms. In Shah & Brenzinger, eds., ''Khoisan Languages and Linguistics: Proceedings of the 5th International Symposium, July 13–17, 2014, Riezlern/Kleinwalsertal.'' Cologne: Rüdiger Köppe, 277–333.
* Bonny Sands (1998). The Linguistic Relationship between Hadza and Khoisan. In Schladt, Matthias (ed.) ''Language, Identity, and Conceptualization among the Khoisan'' (Quellen zur Khoisan-Forschung Vol. 15), Cologne: Rüdiger Köppe, 265–283.
* ———— (2013). Phonetics and phonology: Hadza; Tonology: Hadza; Morphology: Hadza; Syntax: Hadza. In Rainer Vossen, ed., ''The Khoesan Languages''. Oxford: Routledge.
*Sergei Starostin. [http://starling.rinet.ru/cgi-bin/response.cgi?root=new100&morpho=0&basename=new100\hdz\hdz&limit=-1 Hadza basic lexicon.] Global Lexicostatistical Database. [much of the parsing is speculation, and Bleek's posthumous data is unreliable]
* A.N. Tucker, M.A. Bryan & James Woodburn as co-author for Hadza (1977). The East African Click Languages: A Phonetic Comparison. In J.G. Moehlig, Franz Rottland, Bernd Heine, eds, ''Zur Sprachgeschichte und Ethnohistorie in Afrika.'' Berlin: Dietrich Diener.

[[Category:En]]
[[Category:Single language]]

Tenuis

2019-03-06T05:15:06Z

Kirk Miller: /* Definition */

==Definition==
A '''tenuis consonant''' (pronounced /ˈtɛnjuːɪs/ or, to distinguish it from ''tenuous'', /ˈtɛnuːɪs/), plural '''tenues''' (/ˈtɛn(j)uːiːz/), is a consonant that is not voiced, aspirated or glottalized – that is, a 'plain' obstruent such as [p, t, k, s, ǁ] with a [[voice-onset time]] approximating zero. The term comes from the Classical tradition, where it indicates the voiceless, unaspirated series of Greek plosives, ''π τ κ''. It may be useful as a more precise alternative when terms such as 'voiceless', 'unaspirated' and 'plain' are ambiguous. An obsolete synonym is '''surd'''.

[[Category:En]]
[[Category:DICT]]
[[Category:Phonetics]]

Tenuis

2019-03-06T05:02:03Z

Kirk Miller:

==Definition==
A '''tenuis consonant''' (pronounced /ˈtɛnjuːɪs/ or, to distinguish it from ''tenuous'', /ˈtɛnuːɪs/), plural '''tenues''' (/ˈtɛn(j)uːiːz/), is a consonant that is not voiced, aspirated or glottalized – that is, a 'plain' obstruent such as [p, t, k, s, ǁ] with a [[voice-onset time]] approximating zero. The term comes from the Classical tradition, where it indicates the voiceless, unaspirated series of Greek plosives, ''π τ κ''. It may be useful where terms such as 'voiceless', 'unaspirated' or 'plain' are ambiguous. An obsolete synonym is '''surd'''.

[[Category:En]]
[[Category:DICT]]
[[Category:Phonetics]]

Voice-onset time

2019-03-06T05:01:06Z

Kirk Miller: not just plosives

==Definition==
'''Voice-onset time''' (VOT) is the difference in time between the release of an [[obstruent]] and the onset of [[voicing]]. When voicing starts before the release of the consonant, the value of VOT is negative. The VOT is language-specific: e.g. for Spanish /b/ voicing starts earlier (the VOT has a greater negative value) than for English /b/.

== Links ==
*[http://www2.let.uu.nl/UiL-OTS/Lexicon/zoek.pl?lemma=Voice+Onset+Time&lemmacode=1512 Utrecht Lexicon of Linguistics]

{{dc}}
[[Category:Phonetics]]

{{stub}}{{cats}}

Voice onset time

2019-03-06T04:59:25Z

Kirk Miller: Kirk Miller moved page Voice onset time to Voice-onset time: hyphenate attributive phrase

#REDIRECT [[Voice-onset time]]

Voice-onset time

2019-03-06T04:59:24Z

Kirk Miller: Kirk Miller moved page Voice onset time to Voice-onset time: hyphenate attributive phrase

==Definition==
'''Voice onset time''' (VOT) is the difference in time between the release of a [[plosive]] and the onset of [[voicing]]. When voicing starts before the release of the plosive, the value of VOT is negative. The VOT is language-specific: e.g. for Spanish /b/ voicing starts earlier (the VOT has a greater negative value) than for English /b/.

== Links ==
*[http://www2.let.uu.nl/UiL-OTS/Lexicon/zoek.pl?lemma=Voice+Onset+Time&lemmacode=1512 Utrecht Lexicon of Linguistics]

{{dc}}
[[Category:Phonetics]]

{{stub}}{{cats}}

Tenuis

2019-03-06T04:56:14Z

Kirk Miller: create stub

A '''tenuis consonant''' (pronounced /ˈtɛnjuːɪs/ or, to distinguish it from ''tenuous'', /ˈtɛnuːɪs/), plural '''tenues''' (/ˈtɛn(j)uːiːz/), is a consonant that is not voiced, aspirated or glottalized – that is, a 'plain' obstruent such as [p, t, k, s, ǁ] with a [[voice-onset time]] approximating zero. The term comes from the Classical tradition, where it indicates the voiceless, unaspirated series of Greek plosives, ''π τ κ''. It may be useful where terms such as 'voiceless', 'unaspirated' or 'plain' are ambiguous. An obsolete synonym is '''surd'''.

[[Category:En]]
[[Category:DICT]]
[[Category:Phonetics]]

Hadza

2019-03-06T04:35:41Z

Kirk Miller: /* Consonants */

{{InfoboxLanguage
|Language = Hadza
|Autonym = ''Haza, hazane''
|Pronunciation = ɦad͜za
|Ethn15name = Hadza
|Countries = Tanzania
|OfficialLg = none
|OLACname = Hadza
|WALSLoc = 3°45′ S, 35°10′ E
|Speakers = 1,000
|Family = [[isolate]]
|Genus = Hadza
|WritingSyst = none
|ISO3 = hts
}}

Hadza is a language isolate of Tanzania.

=== Location and Speakers ===
Hadza is spoken along the entire eastern shore of alkaline Lake Eyasi, which lies at the base of the Serengeti Plateau in Tanzania, from Mount Oldeani in the north to the Isanzu agricultural areas in the south.

There is a small population of Hadza to the west of the lake, in ''Dunduina'' /duƞtuina/<ref>This article uses the old IPA letter for a moraic nasal, ⟨ƞ⟩, which was retired because it has no specific phonetic value. In Hadza, the moraic nasal is homorganic with a following consonant.</ref> 'Sukumaland', but their number seems to be decreasing and many only speak Sukuma and Swahili.

There are approximately 1,000 speakers of Hadza, most now bilingual in Swahili. Other second languages include [[Isanzu]] in the south, [[Sukuma]] in the west, and to a lesser degree [[Datooga]] in the center (e.g. near the Yaeda Valley) and [[Iraqw]] on the margins of Iraqw territory. The northern Hadza area, around the town of Mangola, was largely monolingual until the introduction of Standard Swahili after independence.

As of 2005, about 40% of Hadza lived as full-time hunter-gatherers, and language transmission was robust in the areas east of the lake, but since then there have been reports of children speaking Swahili east of the lake, perhaps due to the influx of ''Dunduinabee'' abandoning their territory in the west.

=== Classification ===
Hadza is a [[language isolate]]. Greenberg classified it as [[Khoisan]] due to its use of [[click consonant]]s. If it were not for the clicks, it's likely that Hadza would have been classified as [[Cushitic]].

=== Dialects ===
There do not appear to be any dialects of Hadza, presumably due to the mobility of its speakers. There are some regional differences of vocabulary, however, and speakers note that there are many more Bantu loans in the south.

=== Name ===
"Hadza" is the most common name in the literature. ''Haza'' /ɦad͜za/ simply means 'human being'. The derivative "Hadzane" (/ɦad͜zane/ 'in the manner of the people') is sometimes encountered as the name of the language. The feminine plural ''hazabee'' /ɦad͜zabeʔe/ may be used for the people, though it is usually spelled "Hadzabe" due to devoicing of the final vowel. (The feminine is the inclusive gender in the plural.) "Hadzapi" is the masculine copular form ''hazaphii'' /ɦad͜zapʰiʔi/. "Hatza" and "Hatsa" are older German spellings.

"Tindiga" is from the Swahili name, ''watindiga'' 'people of the marsh grass', presumably named for the large spring in Mangola. The form ''wahadza'', ''kihadza'' is found instead of ''watindiga'', ''kitindiga'' in recent Swahili publications, but the Hadza do not consider ''watindiga'' to be pejorative. "Kindiga" may be a cognate from one of the local Bantu languages. "Kangeju" (pronounced ''Kangeyu'') is an obsolete German name of unclear origin. The name "Wahi" (pronounced ''Vahi'') found in Kohl-Larsen is a Sukuma name for the Hadza.

=== Orthography ===
Hadza does not have a written tradition. Two orthographies have seen recent use: the phonetic transcription of Tucker, Bryan & Woodburn (1977), used with some modification by Woodburn and other anthropologists, and the practical orthography of Anyawire et al. (2013). As it is based on the IPA, the Woodburn transcription is more accessible to linguists, while the Anyawire orthography is closer to those of Sandawe and other written languages of Tanzania. There is evidently some political controversy over the choice of orthography, with Hadza reporting they have been told that if they use the Anyawire orthography they will loose their land. There are two motivations for the Anyawire orthography: the perception that the IPA click letters of the Woodburn transcription portray the Hadza language as bizarre, when the Hadza people already have difficulties with being marginalized and a perception that they are not proper human beings, and the practical issue that the ubiquitous apostrophe of the Woodburn transcription makes it impractical for extended use. The apostrophes are generally omitted by those Hadza who have learned it, with the resulting texts often being unintelligible even to their authors; when the apostrophes are written, they greatly slow down the pace of writing. In the Anyawire orthography, doubled consonants and vowels are used for glottalized/ejective consonants and glottal stop, with the apostrophe only being used for the Swahili convention of ⟨ngʼ⟩ for /ŋ/.

The Anyawire orthography is used alongside the IPA in this article for accessibility with the dictionary. For clarity, an apostrophe will be retained for glottal stop between unlike vowels, for e.g. ''ae'' /ae/ vs ''aʼe'' /aʔe/. In practice, the Hadza are more likely to use epenthetic glides between vowels in hiatus, for e.g. ''aye'' /ae/ and ''ae'' /aʔe/.

=== Phonology ===
Hadza syllable structure is limited to CVN in native words. There are no vowel-initial roots, unless ''h'' is analyzed as an allophone of zero. Syllable-coda N surfaces as a homorganic nasal when a following consonant has a place of articulation to assimilate to, and as nasalization of the vowel before a glottal consonant (glottal stop and ''h''/zero) and pre-pausa. Coda N appears allophonically before voiced or glottalized nasal clicks. A moraic (syllabic?) nasal is also found word-initially in loans, where it may have a different pitch than the following vowel; such nasals are analyzed as NCV sequences rather than as a series of prenasalized consonants. Initial NCV may also occur when the initial hV syllable of an hVCV- word is elided and the C2 is a glottalized nasal click.

==== Stress and tone ====
Salient stress and pitch is not restricted to a particular syllable. There are no known minimal pairs, grammatical or lexical, for stress or tone. Pairs claimed in the literature have turned out to either not be distinct or not be minimal pairs. It may be that some loanwords retain their tone from their source language.

==== Vowels ====
There are five phonemic vowels, which are close to cardinal [a e i o u].

{| class="wikitable" style=text-align:center
|+Hadza vowels
| style="background: white" |
! Front
! Central
! Back
|-
! High
| i || || u
|-
! Mid
| e || || o
|-
! Low
| || a ||
|}

Phonetic nasal vowels, which are not common except before a consonant, are here analyzed as /VN/.

Phonetic long vowels are often sequences, as in ''kaha'' [kaː] ~ [kaɦa] 'to climb'. In some words, however, there is no allomorph with [ɦ], as in ''bôko'' [boːko] 'she' (forms a minimal pair with ''boko'' [boko] 'to be ill'). There is no known minimal set to establish long /Vː/ as distinct from a /VV/ sequence.

The mid vowels /e, o/ tend to rise when a high vowel, /i, u/, occurs in the following syllable, and may merge with /i, u/ in that position. However, such assimilation tends to be optional, even in suffixed pronouns such as ''onebii'' [ʔone̝biʔi] ~ ''unibii'' [ʔunibiʔi] 'we' (masculine, inclusive).

/u/ is relatively uncommon except in loans or due to vowel-height assimilation, and does not occur in grammatical morphemes unless the morpheme has a second syllable with vowel /i/.

Vowels tend to devoice pre-pausa and after a voiceless consonant. In the highly frequent pattern of word-final -V₁ʔV₁ (where the two vowels are the same, found in half of all grammatical suffixes and clitics though not frequently elsewhere), the vowel and preceding glottal stop tend to elide completely, whether pre-pausa or before another word.

==== Consonants ====
Hadza has at least 50 productive syllable onsets and several more marginal consonants.

{| class="wikitable" style=text-align:center
|+Principal Hadza consonants (Parentheses: loans. Dark background: may follow a nasal coda.)
! rowspan=2 colspan=2 |
! rowspan=2 | Labial
! rowspan=2 colspan=2 | (Denti-) alveolar
! rowspan=2 | (Post-) alveolar
! rowspan=2 | Palatal
! colspan=2 | Post-velar
! rowspan=2 | Glottal/ placeless
|- class=small
! plain
! labialized
|-
! rowspan=4 | Click
! Aspirated
|
| colspan=2 style="background: silver" | ǀʰ
| style="background: silver" |ǃʰ
| style="background: LightGray" |ǁʰ
| colspan=3 rowspan=4 style="background: white" |
|-
! Tenuis
|
| colspan=2 style="background: silver" | ǀ
| style="background: Gainsboro" |ǃ
| style="background: Gainsboro" |ǁ
|-
! Voiced nasal
|
| colspan=2 | ⁿǀ
| ⁿǃ
| ⁿǁ
|-
! Glottalized nasal
|
| colspan=2 | ⁿǀˀ
| ⁿǃˀ
| ⁿǁˀ
|-
! rowspan=5 | Plosive / affricate
|-
! Ejective
| pʼ
| colspan=2| t͜sʼ
| t͜ʃʼ
| c͜ʎ̥˔ʼ
| k͜xʼ
| k͜xʷʼ
| style="background: white" |
|-
! Aspirated
| style="background: silver" |pʰ
| style="background: silver" |tʰ
| style="background: silver" |t͜sʰ
| style="background: silver" |t͜ʃʰ
| c͜ʎ̥˔ʰ
| style="background: silver" |kʰ
| style="background: silver" |kʷʰ
|
|-
! Tenuis
| style="background: silver" |p
| style="background: silver" |t
| style="background: silver" |t͜s
| style="background: silver" |t͜ʃ
| c͜ʎ̥˔
| style="background: silver" |k
| style="background: silver" |kʷ
| style="background: silver" |ʔ
|-
! Voiced
| b
| (d)
| (d͜z)
| (d͜ʒ)
|
| (ɡ)
| (ɡʷ)
| style="background: white" |
|-
! colspan=2| Nasal
| m
| colspan=2| n
| colspan=2| (ɲ)
| (ŋ)
| (ŋʷ)
| //ƞ//
|-
! colspan=2 | Fricative
| (fʷ)
| ɬ
| s
| ʃ
|
|
|
|
|-
! colspan=2 | Sonorant
|
| colspan=2 | ɺ
|
| j
|
| w
| style="background: silver" | ɦ (zero?)
|}

Consonants in parentheses are thought to be loans, though the voiced obstruents at least are well-integrated and may be spreading to native roots.

Consonants with a grey background may follow a coda nasal. (That is, they may be C2 in a CVNCV pattern.) /ǃ/ and /ǁ/ (lighter grey) are not attested in this position, but it is suspected these are accidental gaps, given that only two roots are known with /ǀ/ after a nasal and that the gaps have not yet been investigated in the field. However, the only known case of /ƞǁʰ/, though clear when elicited, needs to be confirmed with additional speakers, so it's possible the constraint against laterals after a nasal coda extends to clicks.

The voice-onset time of consonants is reduced after a nasal coda: [[tenuis]] consonants may be partially or completely voiced, and the aspiration of aspirated consonants may be reduced or lost. This is true of clicks as well as of plosives and affricates. A /b/~/p/ distinction has not been found in this position despite /b/ being native.

Aspirated consonants may only be distinct in the first several syllables of a word. Many speakers distinguish aspirated plosives in only a few words, but maintain a robust distinction for affricates and clicks. The reason for this asymmetry is unknown.

The glottalized nasal clicks surface as e.g. [ǃʔ] post-pausa and often [ŋ͡nʔǃ] intervocalically. Accounts differ as to whether there is voiceless nasal airflow in post-pausa position.

Aspirated clicks may have a delayed and clearly audible posterior release, e.g. [ǃʰ] ~ [ǃkʰ]. This release has the same post-velar articulation as the k-series of plosives.

The ǃ-clicks tend to be weakly articulated, though, so far as is known, not slapped as has been reported from Sandawe. When intervocalic, /ⁿǃ/ may surface as or nearly as [ŋ͡n]. The ǁ-clicks, on the other hand, are typically quite salient.

Among the ejectives, /pʼ/ is uncommon. Many vary between affricate and fricative realizations. [sʼ, ʃʼ, xʼ, xʷʼ] have been noted. /k͜xʼ/ and /k͜xʷʼ/ have plosive allophones [kʼ, kʷʼ], and at least /k͜xʼ/ has a lateral allophone [k͜ʟ̝̊ʼ]. /t͜sʼ/ may be the ejective correlate of both the /t/ and /t͜s/ series of pulmonic consonants.

The palatal lateral affricates may be pronounced with an alveolar onset, e.g. [t͜ʎ̥˔], or without involving the front of the tongue, e.g. [c͜ʎ̥˔]. Speakers express no preference when hearing these articulations. The fricative /ɬ/ is alveolar; a palatal articulation is not accepted. Given that the fricative may be pronounced as an affricate in some prosodic situations, this means that there is a three-way phonetic place contrast among laterals: [t͜ɬ] vs [t͜ʎ̥˔ ~ c͜ʎ̥˔] and [t͜ʎ̥˔ʼ ~ c͜ʎ̥˔ʼ] vs [k͜ʟ̝̊ʼ].

/ɺ/ is typically realized as [l] post-pausa and [ɾ] elsewhere, though [ɺ] is not uncommon. It also tends toward [l] when it occurs as both C1 and C2, as in /ɺoɺa/ (sp. rabbit).

[ɦ] and zero may be allophones. If so, and given that vowel-initial suffixes may elide a stem-final vowel, it would be simplest to posit that the phoneme is zero and [ɦ] an allophone of zero, rather than that /ɦ/ is elided under some conditions. A predictive conditioning environment for the presence or absence of [ɦ] has not been discovered, but prosody may play a role; even vowel-initial suffixes and clitics may be realized with an initial [ɦ] when given contrastive prosody. Assimilation or bilingualism may be involved in the case of loanwords. For instance, an Isanzu loan for 'snake' was recorded as ''ihato'' /ʔiɦato/ at the beginning of the 20th century (and perhaps in an Isanzu-biligual area) but as ''iyato'' /ʔiato/ at the beginning of the 21st century in Mangola.

The glides /j/ and /w/ are not distinctive next to front (/i, e/) and back (/o, u/) vowels, respectively. It is possible that they are allophones of /i/ and /u/. When they occur word-initially, purported /jV, wV/ often appear as [ʔijV] and [ʔuwV]. This is true even of a ubiquitous sequential auxiliary (''yamo'' [jamo] ~ ''iamo'' [ʔiamo] in the 3msg posterior (past?) tense). /j/ does however occur in two object suffixes where such variation has not been noted. In the anthropological and linguistic literature, glides are often written between unlike vowels. For example, the 3msg non-past copula clitic ''-ha'' /ɦa/ is often transcribed 'ya' after a front vowel and 'wa' after a back vowel.

===== Marginal consonants =====

A labial click, variously reported as [ⁿʘʷ] or [ⁿʘˀ], is found in a single root, ''mcwa-'', that is mimetic for a kiss and often made with an accompanying kiss to the hand. ''Mcwa-'' may be allomorphic with ''ncuwa-'' /ⁿǀua/ with a dental click.

A trill [r] is used by some speakers in some words, such as ''karro'' /karo/ (hunting/sighting name for a female giraffe), perhaps reflecting the pronunciation of the word in the language it was borrowed from. It is replaced with /ɺ/ (''karo'' /kaɺo/) by other speakers.

An implosive [ɓ] is used by some speakers in some words, perhaps reflecting the pronunciation of the word in the source language, though in some instances it might co-occur with ejectives, which would be difficult to explain away as a loan (e.g. ''beggawuko'' /bekx’auko/ 'elephant', apparently [ɓekx’auko] in some recordings). It is replaced with /b/ by other speakers. Other implosives have not been noted.

A fricative [x] occurs lexicalized in an expletive, ''ahho'' [ʔaxo], where otherwise the root is ''akho'' /ʔakʰo/ 'genitals'. (/kʰ/ is commonly realized as [kx].)

Word-initial /mu/ and occasionally /mo/ are optionally realized as syllabic [m̩], for example in the common greeting ''mutana'' ~ ''mtana''. This is a Bantu alternation.

/v/ may occasionally be found in loans, as in mimetic ''vûvuko'' ~ ''fûfuko'' /vuːvuko ~ fuːfuko/ 'propeller toy', though it is normally replaced with /f/. [v] (or perhaps [β]) has been reported for /b/, for example in Bleek's transcriptions of the plural suffixes ''-bee'' and ''-bii'' as 've' and 'vi'.

===== Phonotactics =====
All clicks within a root must be the same, as in /ǀikiɺiƞǀa/ 'pinkie'. Although there is a tendency for clicks and ejectives to occur as C1, in a quarter of click words the click occurs as C2.

Clicks and ejectives may co-occur, but always in that order. When they co-occur, there appears to be some sibilant harmony, with a strong tendency for /t͜sʼ/ to occur with denti-alveolar clicks and for /c͜ʎ̥˔ʼ/ to occur with lateral clicks.

When an aspirated consonant occurs more than once in a word, the first tends to deaspirate (Grassmann's/Katupha's Law, though generally optional). A coda N may block deaspiration, as in the allomorphs /peǃeǃʰe/ ~ /peƞǃʰeƞǃʰe/ 'to rush'. NC sequences may loose their nasal segment as well, as in /ƞtʰaɺaƞtʰaɺaʔabiʔi/ ~ /taɺaƞtʰaɺaʔabiʔi/ '(arrow) barbs'. It is not clear to what extent these patterns hold with two different aspirated consonants.

===Swadesh lists===
Only roots are given. For example, the word for 'name', given as the root ''akhana'' below, is actually feminine plural ''akhanabee''.

====Wichmann & Holman basic 40-word list (ordered by stability)====

#louse ''ccamazzi'' /ⁿǀˀamat͜sʼi/<ref>cf. ''ccezze'' /ⁿǀˀet͜s’e/ 'tick'</ref>
#two ''piye'' /pie/, ''konxa'' /koⁿǁa/ (verb)
#water ''ati'' /ʔati/ (mpl; msg = 'rain, river')
#ear ''hajjapitchi'' /ɦat͜ʃ’apit͜ʃʰi/<ref>from ''hazzape'' /ɦat͜s’ape/ 'leaf'?</ref>
#to die ''taxxi'' /taⁿǁˀi/, ''misi'' /misi/ (Datooga?)
#I *one /ʔone/, */-ko/<ref>If *-ko-a > /-kʷa/ rather than *-kʷa-ʔV > /-koʔo/.</ref>
#liver ''xxe'' /ⁿǁˀe/
#eye ''akhwa'' /ʔakʷʰa/
#hand, arm ''ukhwa'' /ʔukʷʰa/
#hear ''nxaʼe'' /ⁿǁaʔe/
#tree ''zziti'' /t͜s’iti/
#fish ''ccama'' /ⁿǀˀama/, ''ccara'' /ⁿǀˀaɺa/
#name ''akhana'' /ʔakʰana/
#stone ''haqqa'' /ɦaⁿǃˀa/
#tooth ''aha'' /ʔaɦa/
#breast ''iriba'' /ʔiɺiba/ ('breasts, milk'. Cushitic); ''ggazza'' /k͜x’at͜s’a/ ('flesh at sternum')
#thou ''the'' /tʰe/, /-en-/ (m), /-n-/ (f)
#path ''yeke'' /jeke/
#bone ''midla'' /mic͜ʎ̥˔’a/ (cf. Dahalo)
#tongue ''ncata'' /ⁿǀata/
#skin ''ahu'' /ʔaɦu/
#night ''zzifi'' /t͜s’ifi/ (m; f = 'day')
#leaf ''hazzape'' /ɦat͜s’ape/
#rain = 'water' (msg = 'rain, river'; mpl = 'water')
#kill ''xô'' /ǁoː/
#blood ''athama'' /ʔatʰama/
#horn ''roo'' /ɺoʔo/
#person ''haza'' /ɦad͜za/ (human), ''unu'' /ʔunu/ (person)
#knee ''guringuri'' /ɡuɺiƞɡuɺi/ ~ ''gurunguri'' /ɡuɺuƞɡuɺi/ (Cushitic? pan-African)
#one ''itchâme'' /ʔit͜ʃʰaːme/
#nose ''intawe'' /ʔiƞtʰawe/
#full ''ggaʼe'' /k͜x’aʔe/, *cco- /ⁿǀˀo-/
#come ''za'' /d͜za/ (Bantu), ''botco'' /bot͜ʃo/ (stem of imperative)
#star ''ntsa'' /ƞt͜sʰa/, ''sa'' /sa/ (Cushitic?)<ref>Anyawire et al. (2013) only found ''ntsa''. Tucker et al. (1977) report ''sa'' 'star', and Woodburn confirms the form he knows does not have a nasal onset. /ƞ/ + /sa/ would generate /ƞt͜sʰa/. Indeed, speakers do not care if the latter is written ''ntsa'' or ''nsa''. There are several Cushitic loanwords that have an onset that varies as C ~ NC in Hadza where the source language is only reconstructed with C.</ref>
#mountain ''xxudle'' /ⁿǁˀuc͜ʎ̥˔’e/
#fire ''zzoko'' /t͜s’oko/
#we (exclusive) ''ô'' /ʔoː/, /-j-/
#to drink ''fa'' /fʷa/
#to see ''chî'' /ǀʰiː/ ~ ''cî'' /ǀiː/
#bark ''heggwa'' /ɦek͜xʷ’a/
#new ''zana'' /d͜zana/<ref>from ''za'' 'come'?</ref>
#dog ''xhaano'' /ǁʰaʔano/, ''tîngi'' /tiːƞki/
#sun ''isho'' /ʔiʃo/

====Other Swadesh-100 words====

===Notes===
<references/>

===Bibliography===

* Mariamu Anyawire, G.G. Bala, Kirk Miller (ed.) & Bonny Sands (2013). ''A Hadza Lexicon'' (ms).
* Roger Blench (2008). [https://web.archive.org/web/20110721180216/http://www.rogerblench.info/Language%20data/Khoesan/Blench%20paper%20Riezlern%202008.pdf Hadza Animal Names.] Paper presented at the 3rd International Symposium on Khoisan Languages and Linguistics, Riezlern, 7–9 July 2008.
* Niklas Edenmyr (2004). [https://web.archive.org/web/20070706040409/http://www.african.gu.se/aa/pdfs/aa04003.pdf The semantics of Hadza gender assignment: a few notes from the field.] ''Africa & Asia'', no. 4, Department of Oriental and African languages, Göteborg University, 3–19.
* Edward Elderkin (1978). Loans in Hadza: internal evidence from consonants. ''Occasional Papers'' 3, Dar es Salaam.
* Peter Ladefoged, Ian Maddieson & Bonny Sands (1991). [http://archive.phonetics.ucla.edu/Language/HTS/hts.html Hadza wordlist and sound files]. UCLA Phonetics Lab Archive.
* ———— (1993). [https://www.academia.edu/17743030/The_phonetic_structures_of_Hadza The Phonetic Structures of Hadza.] In [http://repositories.cdlib.org/uclaling/wpp/No84/ ''UCLA Working Papers in Phonetics'' No. 84: ''Fieldwork Studies in Targeted Languages'',] 67–87.
* Kirk Miller (2008). [https://www.academia.edu/36533859/Hadza_grammar_notes Hadza Grammar Notes.] Paper presented at the 3rd International Symposium on Khoisan Languages and Linguistics, Riezlern, 7–9 July 2008.
* ———— (2009). [https://www.academia.edu/36533860/Highlights_of_Hadza_Fieldwork Highlights of Hadza fieldwork.] Paper presented at the 83rd Annual Meeting of the Linguistic Society of America, San Francisco, 8–11 January 2009.
* ———— (2016). Hadza Kinship Terms. In Shah & Brenzinger, eds., ''Khoisan Languages and Linguistics: Proceedings of the 5th International Symposium, July 13–17, 2014, Riezlern/Kleinwalsertal.'' Cologne: Rüdiger Köppe, 277–333.
* Bonny Sands (1998). The Linguistic Relationship between Hadza and Khoisan. In Schladt, Matthias (ed.) ''Language, Identity, and Conceptualization among the Khoisan'' (Quellen zur Khoisan-Forschung Vol. 15), Cologne: Rüdiger Köppe, 265–283.
* ———— (2013). Phonetics and phonology: Hadza; Tonology: Hadza; Morphology: Hadza; Syntax: Hadza. In Rainer Vossen, ed., ''The Khoesan Languages''. Oxford: Routledge.
*Sergei Starostin. [http://starling.rinet.ru/cgi-bin/response.cgi?root=new100&morpho=0&basename=new100\hdz\hdz&limit=-1 Hadza basic lexicon.] Global Lexicostatistical Database. [much of the parsing is speculation, and Bleek's posthumous data is unreliable]
* A.N. Tucker, M.A. Bryan & James Woodburn as co-author for Hadza (1977). The East African Click Languages: A Phonetic Comparison. In J.G. Moehlig, Franz Rottland, Bernd Heine, eds, ''Zur Sprachgeschichte und Ethnohistorie in Afrika.'' Berlin: Dietrich Diener.

[[Category:En]]
[[Category:Single language]]

Hadza

2019-03-05T23:43:51Z

Kirk Miller: /* Bibliography */

{{InfoboxLanguage
|Language = Hadza
|Autonym = ''Haza, hazane''
|Pronunciation = ɦad͜za
|Ethn15name = Hadza
|Countries = Tanzania
|OfficialLg = none
|OLACname = Hadza
|WALSLoc = 3°45′ S, 35°10′ E
|Speakers = 1,000
|Family = [[isolate]]
|Genus = Hadza
|WritingSyst = none
|ISO3 = hts
}}

Hadza is a language isolate of Tanzania.

=== Location and Speakers ===
Hadza is spoken along the entire eastern shore of alkaline Lake Eyasi, which lies at the base of the Serengeti Plateau in Tanzania, from Mount Oldeani in the north to the Isanzu agricultural areas in the south.

There is a small population of Hadza to the west of the lake, in ''Dunduina'' /duƞtuina/<ref>This article uses the old IPA letter for a moraic nasal, ⟨ƞ⟩, which was retired because it has no specific phonetic value. In Hadza, the moraic nasal is homorganic with a following consonant.</ref> 'Sukumaland', but their number seems to be decreasing and many only speak Sukuma and Swahili.

There are approximately 1,000 speakers of Hadza, most now bilingual in Swahili. Other second languages include [[Isanzu]] in the south, [[Sukuma]] in the west, and to a lesser degree [[Datooga]] in the center (e.g. near the Yaeda Valley) and [[Iraqw]] on the margins of Iraqw territory. The northern Hadza area, around the town of Mangola, was largely monolingual until the introduction of Standard Swahili after independence.

As of 2005, about 40% of Hadza lived as full-time hunter-gatherers, and language transmission was robust in the areas east of the lake, but since then there have been reports of children speaking Swahili east of the lake, perhaps due to the influx of ''Dunduinabee'' abandoning their territory in the west.

=== Classification ===
Hadza is a [[language isolate]]. Greenberg classified it as [[Khoisan]] due to its use of [[click consonant]]s. If it were not for the clicks, it's likely that Hadza would have been classified as [[Cushitic]].

=== Dialects ===
There do not appear to be any dialects of Hadza, presumably due to the mobility of its speakers. There are some regional differences of vocabulary, however, and speakers note that there are many more Bantu loans in the south.

=== Name ===
"Hadza" is the most common name in the literature. ''Haza'' /ɦad͜za/ simply means 'human being'. The derivative "Hadzane" (/ɦad͜zane/ 'in the manner of the people') is sometimes encountered as the name of the language. The feminine plural ''hazabee'' /ɦad͜zabeʔe/ may be used for the people, though it is usually spelled "Hadzabe" due to devoicing of the final vowel. (The feminine is the inclusive gender in the plural.) "Hadzapi" is the masculine copular form ''hazaphii'' /ɦad͜zapʰiʔi/. "Hatza" and "Hatsa" are older German spellings.

"Tindiga" is from the Swahili name, ''watindiga'' 'people of the marsh grass', presumably named for the large spring in Mangola. The form ''wahadza'', ''kihadza'' is found instead of ''watindiga'', ''kitindiga'' in recent Swahili publications, but the Hadza do not consider ''watindiga'' to be pejorative. "Kindiga" may be a cognate from one of the local Bantu languages. "Kangeju" (pronounced ''Kangeyu'') is an obsolete German name of unclear origin. The name "Wahi" (pronounced ''Vahi'') found in Kohl-Larsen is a Sukuma name for the Hadza.

=== Orthography ===
Hadza does not have a written tradition. Two orthographies have seen recent use: the phonetic transcription of Tucker, Bryan & Woodburn (1977), used with some modification by Woodburn and other anthropologists, and the practical orthography of Anyawire et al. (2013). As it is based on the IPA, the Woodburn transcription is more accessible to linguists, while the Anyawire orthography is closer to those of Sandawe and other written languages of Tanzania. There is evidently some political controversy over the choice of orthography, with Hadza reporting they have been told that if they use the Anyawire orthography they will loose their land. There are two motivations for the Anyawire orthography: the perception that the IPA click letters of the Woodburn transcription portray the Hadza language as bizarre, when the Hadza people already have difficulties with being marginalized and a perception that they are not proper human beings, and the practical issue that the ubiquitous apostrophe of the Woodburn transcription makes it impractical for extended use. The apostrophes are generally omitted by those Hadza who have learned it, with the resulting texts often being unintelligible even to their authors; when the apostrophes are written, they greatly slow down the pace of writing. In the Anyawire orthography, doubled consonants and vowels are used for glottalized/ejective consonants and glottal stop, with the apostrophe only being used for the Swahili convention of ⟨ngʼ⟩ for /ŋ/.

The Anyawire orthography is used alongside the IPA in this article for accessibility with the dictionary. For clarity, an apostrophe will be retained for glottal stop between unlike vowels, for e.g. ''ae'' /ae/ vs ''aʼe'' /aʔe/. In practice, the Hadza are more likely to use epenthetic glides between vowels in hiatus, for e.g. ''aye'' /ae/ and ''ae'' /aʔe/.

=== Phonology ===
Hadza syllable structure is limited to CVN in native words. There are no vowel-initial roots, unless ''h'' is analyzed as an allophone of zero. Syllable-coda N surfaces as a homorganic nasal when a following consonant has a place of articulation to assimilate to, and as nasalization of the vowel before a glottal consonant (glottal stop and ''h''/zero) and pre-pausa. Coda N appears allophonically before voiced or glottalized nasal clicks. A moraic (syllabic?) nasal is also found word-initially in loans, where it may have a different pitch than the following vowel; such nasals are analyzed as NCV sequences rather than as a series of prenasalized consonants. Initial NCV may also occur when the initial hV syllable of an hVCV- word is elided and the C2 is a glottalized nasal click.

==== Stress and tone ====
Salient stress and pitch is not restricted to a particular syllable. There are no known minimal pairs, grammatical or lexical, for stress or tone. Pairs claimed in the literature have turned out to either not be distinct or not be minimal pairs. It may be that some loanwords retain their tone from their source language.

==== Vowels ====
There are five phonemic vowels, which are close to cardinal [a e i o u].

{| class="wikitable" style=text-align:center
|+Hadza vowels
| style="background: white" |
! Front
! Central
! Back
|-
! High
| i || || u
|-
! Mid
| e || || o
|-
! Low
| || a ||
|}

Phonetic nasal vowels, which are not common except before a consonant, are here analyzed as /VN/.

Phonetic long vowels are often sequences, as in ''kaha'' [kaː] ~ [kaɦa] 'to climb'. In some words, however, there is no allomorph with [ɦ], as in ''bôko'' [boːko] 'she' (forms a minimal pair with ''boko'' [boko] 'to be ill'). There is no known minimal set to establish long /Vː/ as distinct from a /VV/ sequence.

The mid vowels /e, o/ tend to rise when a high vowel, /i, u/, occurs in the following syllable, and may merge with /i, u/ in that position. However, such assimilation tends to be optional, even in suffixed pronouns such as ''onebii'' [ʔone̝biʔi] ~ ''unibii'' [ʔunibiʔi] 'we' (masculine, inclusive).

/u/ is relatively uncommon except in loans or due to vowel-height assimilation, and does not occur in grammatical morphemes unless the morpheme has a second syllable with vowel /i/.

Vowels tend to devoice pre-pausa and after a voiceless consonant. In the highly frequent pattern of word-final -V₁ʔV₁ (where the two vowels are the same, found in half of all grammatical suffixes and clitics though not frequently elsewhere), the vowel and preceding glottal stop tend to elide completely, whether pre-pausa or before another word.

==== Consonants ====
Hadza has at least 50 productive syllable onsets and several more marginal consonants.

{| class="wikitable" style=text-align:center
|+Principal Hadza consonants (Parentheses: loans. Dark background: may follow a nasal coda.)
! rowspan=2 colspan=2 |
! rowspan=2 | Labial
! rowspan=2 colspan=2 | (Denti-) alveolar
! rowspan=2 | (Post-) alveolar
! rowspan=2 | Palatal
! colspan=2 | Post-velar
! rowspan=2 | Glottal/ placeless
|- class=small
! plain
! labialized
|-
! rowspan=4 | Click
! Aspirated
|
| colspan=2 style="background: silver" | ǀʰ
| style="background: silver" |ǃʰ
| style="background: LightGray" |ǁʰ
| colspan=3 rowspan=4 style="background: white" |
|-
! Tenuis
|
| colspan=2 style="background: silver" | ǀ
| style="background: Gainsboro" |ǃ
| style="background: Gainsboro" |ǁ
|-
! Voiced nasal
|
| colspan=2 | ⁿǀ
| ⁿǃ
| ⁿǁ
|-
! Glottalized nasal
|
| colspan=2 | ⁿǀˀ
| ⁿǃˀ
| ⁿǁˀ
|-
! rowspan=5 | Plosive / affricate
|-
! Ejective
| pʼ
| colspan=2| t͜sʼ
| t͜ʃʼ
| c͜ʎ̥˔ʼ
| k͜xʼ
| k͜xʷʼ
| style="background: white" |
|-
! Aspirated
| style="background: silver" |pʰ
| style="background: silver" |tʰ
| style="background: silver" |t͜sʰ
| style="background: silver" |t͜ʃʰ
| c͜ʎ̥˔ʰ
| style="background: silver" |kʰ
| style="background: silver" |kʷʰ
|
|-
! Tenuis
| style="background: silver" |p
| style="background: silver" |t
| style="background: silver" |t͜s
| style="background: silver" |t͜ʃ
| c͜ʎ̥˔
| style="background: silver" |k
| style="background: silver" |kʷ
| style="background: silver" |ʔ
|-
! Voiced
| b
| (d)
| (d͜z)
| (d͜ʒ)
|
| (ɡ)
| (ɡʷ)
| style="background: white" |
|-
! colspan=2| Nasal
| m
| colspan=2| n
| colspan=2| (ɲ)
| (ŋ)
| (ŋʷ)
| //ƞ//
|-
! colspan=2 | Fricative
| (fʷ)
| ɬ
| s
| ʃ
|
|
|
|
|-
! colspan=2 | Sonorant
|
| colspan=2 | ɺ
|
| j
|
| w
| style="background: silver" | ɦ (zero?)
|}

Consonants in parentheses are thought to be loans, though the voiced obstruents at least are well-integrated and may be spreading to native roots.

Consonants with a grey background may follow a coda nasal. (That is, they may be C2 in a CVNCV pattern.) /ǃ/ and /ǁ/ (lighter grey) are not attested in this position, but it is suspected these are accidental gaps, given that only two roots are known with /ǀ/ after a nasal and that the gaps have not yet been investigated in the field. However, the only known case of /ƞǁʰ/, though clear when elicited, needs to be confirmed with additional speakers, so it's possible the constraint against laterals after a nasal coda extends to clicks.

The voice-onset time of consonants is reduced after a nasal coda: tenuis consonants may be partially or completely voiced, and the aspiration of aspirated consonants may be reduced or lost. This is true of clicks as well as of plosives and affricates. A /b/~/p/ distinction has not been found in this position despite /b/ being native.

Aspirated consonants may only be distinct in the first several syllables of a word. Many speakers distinguish aspirated plosives in only a few words, but maintain a robust distinction for affricates and clicks. The reason for this asymmetry is unknown.

The glottalized nasal clicks surface as e.g. [ǃʔ] post-pausa and often [ŋ͡nʔǃ] intervocalically. Accounts differ as to whether there is voiceless nasal airflow in post-pausa position.

Aspirated clicks may have a delayed and clearly audible posterior release, e.g. [ǃʰ] ~ [ǃkʰ]. This release has the same post-velar articulation as the k-series of plosives.

The ǃ-clicks tend to be weakly articulated, though, so far as is known, not slapped as has been reported from Sandawe. When intervocalic, /ⁿǃ/ may surface as or nearly as [ŋ͡n]. The ǁ-clicks, on the other hand, are typically quite salient.

Among the ejectives, /pʼ/ is uncommon. Many vary between affricate and fricative realizations. [sʼ, ʃʼ, xʼ, xʷʼ] have been noted. /k͜xʼ/ and /k͜xʷʼ/ have plosive allophones [kʼ, kʷʼ], and at least /k͜xʼ/ has a lateral allophone [k͜ʟ̝̊ʼ]. /t͜sʼ/ may be the ejective correlate of both the /t/ and /t͜s/ series of pulmonic consonants.

The palatal lateral affricates may be pronounced with an alveolar onset, e.g. [t͜ʎ̥˔], or without involving the front of the tongue, e.g. [c͜ʎ̥˔]. Speakers express no preference when hearing these articulations. The fricative /ɬ/ is alveolar; a palatal articulation is not accepted. Given that the fricative may be pronounced as an affricate in some prosodic situations, this means that there is a three-way phonetic place contrast among laterals: [t͜ɬ] vs [t͜ʎ̥˔ ~ c͜ʎ̥˔] and [t͜ʎ̥˔ʼ ~ c͜ʎ̥˔ʼ] vs [k͜ʟ̝̊ʼ].

/ɺ/ is typically realized as [l] post-pausa and [ɾ] elsewhere, though [ɺ] is not uncommon. It also tends toward [l] when it occurs as both C1 and C2, as in /ɺoɺa/ (sp. rabbit).

[ɦ] and zero may be allophones. If so, and given that vowel-initial suffixes may elide a stem-final vowel, it would be simplest to posit that the phoneme is zero and [ɦ] an allophone of zero, rather than that /ɦ/ is elided under some conditions. A predictive conditioning environment for the presence or absence of [ɦ] has not been discovered, but prosody may play a role; even vowel-initial suffixes and clitics may be realized with an initial [ɦ] when given contrastive prosody. Assimilation or bilingualism may be involved in the case of loanwords. For instance, an Isanzu loan for 'snake' was recorded as ''ihato'' /ʔiɦato/ at the beginning of the 20th century (and perhaps in an Isanzu-biligual area) but as ''iyato'' /ʔiato/ at the beginning of the 21st century in Mangola.

The glides /j/ and /w/ are not distinctive next to front (/i, e/) and back (/o, u/) vowels, respectively. It is possible that they are allophones of /i/ and /u/. When they occur word-initially, purported /jV, wV/ often appear as [ʔijV] and [ʔuwV]. This is true even of a ubiquitous sequential auxiliary (''yamo'' [jamo] ~ ''iamo'' [ʔiamo] in the 3msg posterior (past?) tense). /j/ does however occur in two object suffixes where such variation has not been noted. In the anthropological and linguistic literature, glides are often written between unlike vowels. For example, the 3msg non-past copula clitic ''-ha'' /ɦa/ is often transcribed 'ya' after a front vowel and 'wa' after a back vowel.

===== Marginal consonants =====

A labial click, variously reported as [ⁿʘʷ] or [ⁿʘˀ], is found in a single root, ''mcwa-'', that is mimetic for a kiss and often made with an accompanying kiss to the hand. ''Mcwa-'' may be allomorphic with ''ncuwa-'' /ⁿǀua/ with a dental click.

A trill [r] is used by some speakers in some words, such as ''karro'' /karo/ (hunting/sighting name for a female giraffe), perhaps reflecting the pronunciation of the word in the language it was borrowed from. It is replaced with /ɺ/ (''karo'' /kaɺo/) by other speakers.

An implosive [ɓ] is used by some speakers in some words, perhaps reflecting the pronunciation of the word in the source language, though in some instances it might co-occur with ejectives, which would be difficult to explain away as a loan (e.g. ''beggawuko'' /bekx’auko/ 'elephant', apparently [ɓekx’auko] in some recordings). It is replaced with /b/ by other speakers. Other implosives have not been noted.

A fricative [x] occurs lexicalized in an expletive, ''ahho'' [ʔaxo], where otherwise the root is ''akho'' /ʔakʰo/ 'genitals'. (/kʰ/ is commonly realized as [kx].)

Word-initial /mu/ and occasionally /mo/ are optionally realized as syllabic [m̩], for example in the common greeting ''mutana'' ~ ''mtana''. This is a Bantu alternation.

/v/ may occasionally be found in loans, as in mimetic ''vûvuko'' ~ ''fûfuko'' /vuːvuko ~ fuːfuko/ 'propeller toy', though it is normally replaced with /f/. [v] (or perhaps [β]) has been reported for /b/, for example in Bleek's transcriptions of the plural suffixes ''-bee'' and ''-bii'' as 've' and 'vi'.

===== Phonotactics =====
All clicks within a root must be the same, as in /ǀikiɺiƞǀa/ 'pinkie'. Although there is a tendency for clicks and ejectives to occur as C1, in a quarter of click words the click occurs as C2.

Clicks and ejectives may co-occur, but always in that order. When they co-occur, there appears to be some sibilant harmony, with a strong tendency for /t͜sʼ/ to occur with denti-alveolar clicks and for /c͜ʎ̥˔ʼ/ to occur with lateral clicks.

When an aspirated consonant occurs more than once in a word, the first tends to deaspirate (Grassmann's/Katupha's Law, though generally optional). A coda N may block deaspiration, as in the allomorphs /peǃeǃʰe/ ~ /peƞǃʰeƞǃʰe/ 'to rush'. NC sequences may loose their nasal segment as well, as in /ƞtʰaɺaƞtʰaɺaʔabiʔi/ ~ /taɺaƞtʰaɺaʔabiʔi/ '(arrow) barbs'. It is not clear to what extent these patterns hold with two different aspirated consonants.

===Swadesh lists===
Only roots are given. For example, the word for 'name', given as the root ''akhana'' below, is actually feminine plural ''akhanabee''.

====Wichmann & Holman basic 40-word list (ordered by stability)====

#louse ''ccamazzi'' /ⁿǀˀamat͜sʼi/<ref>cf. ''ccezze'' /ⁿǀˀet͜s’e/ 'tick'</ref>
#two ''piye'' /pie/, ''konxa'' /koⁿǁa/ (verb)
#water ''ati'' /ʔati/ (mpl; msg = 'rain, river')
#ear ''hajjapitchi'' /ɦat͜ʃ’apit͜ʃʰi/<ref>from ''hazzape'' /ɦat͜s’ape/ 'leaf'?</ref>
#to die ''taxxi'' /taⁿǁˀi/, ''misi'' /misi/ (Datooga?)
#I *one /ʔone/, */-ko/<ref>If *-ko-a > /-kʷa/ rather than *-kʷa-ʔV > /-koʔo/.</ref>
#liver ''xxe'' /ⁿǁˀe/
#eye ''akhwa'' /ʔakʷʰa/
#hand, arm ''ukhwa'' /ʔukʷʰa/
#hear ''nxaʼe'' /ⁿǁaʔe/
#tree ''zziti'' /t͜s’iti/
#fish ''ccama'' /ⁿǀˀama/, ''ccara'' /ⁿǀˀaɺa/
#name ''akhana'' /ʔakʰana/
#stone ''haqqa'' /ɦaⁿǃˀa/
#tooth ''aha'' /ʔaɦa/
#breast ''iriba'' /ʔiɺiba/ ('breasts, milk'. Cushitic); ''ggazza'' /k͜x’at͜s’a/ ('flesh at sternum')
#thou ''the'' /tʰe/, /-en-/ (m), /-n-/ (f)
#path ''yeke'' /jeke/
#bone ''midla'' /mic͜ʎ̥˔’a/ (cf. Dahalo)
#tongue ''ncata'' /ⁿǀata/
#skin ''ahu'' /ʔaɦu/
#night ''zzifi'' /t͜s’ifi/ (m; f = 'day')
#leaf ''hazzape'' /ɦat͜s’ape/
#rain = 'water' (msg = 'rain, river'; mpl = 'water')
#kill ''xô'' /ǁoː/
#blood ''athama'' /ʔatʰama/
#horn ''roo'' /ɺoʔo/
#person ''haza'' /ɦad͜za/ (human), ''unu'' /ʔunu/ (person)
#knee ''guringuri'' /ɡuɺiƞɡuɺi/ ~ ''gurunguri'' /ɡuɺuƞɡuɺi/ (Cushitic? pan-African)
#one ''itchâme'' /ʔit͜ʃʰaːme/
#nose ''intawe'' /ʔiƞtʰawe/
#full ''ggaʼe'' /k͜x’aʔe/, *cco- /ⁿǀˀo-/
#come ''za'' /d͜za/ (Bantu), ''botco'' /bot͜ʃo/ (stem of imperative)
#star ''ntsa'' /ƞt͜sʰa/, ''sa'' /sa/ (Cushitic?)<ref>Anyawire et al. (2013) only found ''ntsa''. Tucker et al. (1977) report ''sa'' 'star', and Woodburn confirms the form he knows does not have a nasal onset. /ƞ/ + /sa/ would generate /ƞt͜sʰa/. Indeed, speakers do not care if the latter is written ''ntsa'' or ''nsa''. There are several Cushitic loanwords that have an onset that varies as C ~ NC in Hadza where the source language is only reconstructed with C.</ref>
#mountain ''xxudle'' /ⁿǁˀuc͜ʎ̥˔’e/
#fire ''zzoko'' /t͜s’oko/
#we (exclusive) ''ô'' /ʔoː/, /-j-/
#to drink ''fa'' /fʷa/
#to see ''chî'' /ǀʰiː/ ~ ''cî'' /ǀiː/
#bark ''heggwa'' /ɦek͜xʷ’a/
#new ''zana'' /d͜zana/<ref>from ''za'' 'come'?</ref>
#dog ''xhaano'' /ǁʰaʔano/, ''tîngi'' /tiːƞki/
#sun ''isho'' /ʔiʃo/

====Other Swadesh-100 words====

===Notes===
<references/>

===Bibliography===

* Mariamu Anyawire, G.G. Bala, Kirk Miller (ed.) & Bonny Sands (2013). ''A Hadza Lexicon'' (ms).
* Roger Blench (2008). [https://web.archive.org/web/20110721180216/http://www.rogerblench.info/Language%20data/Khoesan/Blench%20paper%20Riezlern%202008.pdf Hadza Animal Names.] Paper presented at the 3rd International Symposium on Khoisan Languages and Linguistics, Riezlern, 7–9 July 2008.
* Niklas Edenmyr (2004). [https://web.archive.org/web/20070706040409/http://www.african.gu.se/aa/pdfs/aa04003.pdf The semantics of Hadza gender assignment: a few notes from the field.] ''Africa & Asia'', no. 4, Department of Oriental and African languages, Göteborg University, 3–19.
* Edward Elderkin (1978). Loans in Hadza: internal evidence from consonants. ''Occasional Papers'' 3, Dar es Salaam.
* Peter Ladefoged, Ian Maddieson & Bonny Sands (1991). [http://archive.phonetics.ucla.edu/Language/HTS/hts.html Hadza wordlist and sound files]. UCLA Phonetics Lab Archive.
* ———— (1993). [https://www.academia.edu/17743030/The_phonetic_structures_of_Hadza The Phonetic Structures of Hadza.] In [http://repositories.cdlib.org/uclaling/wpp/No84/ ''UCLA Working Papers in Phonetics'' No. 84: ''Fieldwork Studies in Targeted Languages'',] 67–87.
* Kirk Miller (2008). [https://www.academia.edu/36533859/Hadza_grammar_notes Hadza Grammar Notes.] Paper presented at the 3rd International Symposium on Khoisan Languages and Linguistics, Riezlern, 7–9 July 2008.
* ———— (2009). [https://www.academia.edu/36533860/Highlights_of_Hadza_Fieldwork Highlights of Hadza fieldwork.] Paper presented at the 83rd Annual Meeting of the Linguistic Society of America, San Francisco, 8–11 January 2009.
* ———— (2016). Hadza Kinship Terms. In Shah & Brenzinger, eds., ''Khoisan Languages and Linguistics: Proceedings of the 5th International Symposium, July 13–17, 2014, Riezlern/Kleinwalsertal.'' Cologne: Rüdiger Köppe, 277–333.
* Bonny Sands (1998). The Linguistic Relationship between Hadza and Khoisan. In Schladt, Matthias (ed.) ''Language, Identity, and Conceptualization among the Khoisan'' (Quellen zur Khoisan-Forschung Vol. 15), Cologne: Rüdiger Köppe, 265–283.
* ———— (2013). Phonetics and phonology: Hadza; Tonology: Hadza; Morphology: Hadza; Syntax: Hadza. In Rainer Vossen, ed., ''The Khoesan Languages''. Oxford: Routledge.
*Sergei Starostin. [http://starling.rinet.ru/cgi-bin/response.cgi?root=new100&morpho=0&basename=new100\hdz\hdz&limit=-1 Hadza basic lexicon.] Global Lexicostatistical Database. [much of the parsing is speculation, and Bleek's posthumous data is unreliable]
* A.N. Tucker, M.A. Bryan & James Woodburn as co-author for Hadza (1977). The East African Click Languages: A Phonetic Comparison. In J.G. Moehlig, Franz Rottland, Bernd Heine, eds, ''Zur Sprachgeschichte und Ethnohistorie in Afrika.'' Berlin: Dietrich Diener.

[[Category:En]]
[[Category:Single language]]

Hadza

2019-03-05T23:42:43Z

Kirk Miller: /* Bibliography */

{{InfoboxLanguage
|Language = Hadza
|Autonym = ''Haza, hazane''
|Pronunciation = ɦad͜za
|Ethn15name = Hadza
|Countries = Tanzania
|OfficialLg = none
|OLACname = Hadza
|WALSLoc = 3°45′ S, 35°10′ E
|Speakers = 1,000
|Family = [[isolate]]
|Genus = Hadza
|WritingSyst = none
|ISO3 = hts
}}

Hadza is a language isolate of Tanzania.

=== Location and Speakers ===
Hadza is spoken along the entire eastern shore of alkaline Lake Eyasi, which lies at the base of the Serengeti Plateau in Tanzania, from Mount Oldeani in the north to the Isanzu agricultural areas in the south.

There is a small population of Hadza to the west of the lake, in ''Dunduina'' /duƞtuina/<ref>This article uses the old IPA letter for a moraic nasal, ⟨ƞ⟩, which was retired because it has no specific phonetic value. In Hadza, the moraic nasal is homorganic with a following consonant.</ref> 'Sukumaland', but their number seems to be decreasing and many only speak Sukuma and Swahili.

There are approximately 1,000 speakers of Hadza, most now bilingual in Swahili. Other second languages include [[Isanzu]] in the south, [[Sukuma]] in the west, and to a lesser degree [[Datooga]] in the center (e.g. near the Yaeda Valley) and [[Iraqw]] on the margins of Iraqw territory. The northern Hadza area, around the town of Mangola, was largely monolingual until the introduction of Standard Swahili after independence.

As of 2005, about 40% of Hadza lived as full-time hunter-gatherers, and language transmission was robust in the areas east of the lake, but since then there have been reports of children speaking Swahili east of the lake, perhaps due to the influx of ''Dunduinabee'' abandoning their territory in the west.

=== Classification ===
Hadza is a [[language isolate]]. Greenberg classified it as [[Khoisan]] due to its use of [[click consonant]]s. If it were not for the clicks, it's likely that Hadza would have been classified as [[Cushitic]].

=== Dialects ===
There do not appear to be any dialects of Hadza, presumably due to the mobility of its speakers. There are some regional differences of vocabulary, however, and speakers note that there are many more Bantu loans in the south.

=== Name ===
"Hadza" is the most common name in the literature. ''Haza'' /ɦad͜za/ simply means 'human being'. The derivative "Hadzane" (/ɦad͜zane/ 'in the manner of the people') is sometimes encountered as the name of the language. The feminine plural ''hazabee'' /ɦad͜zabeʔe/ may be used for the people, though it is usually spelled "Hadzabe" due to devoicing of the final vowel. (The feminine is the inclusive gender in the plural.) "Hadzapi" is the masculine copular form ''hazaphii'' /ɦad͜zapʰiʔi/. "Hatza" and "Hatsa" are older German spellings.

"Tindiga" is from the Swahili name, ''watindiga'' 'people of the marsh grass', presumably named for the large spring in Mangola. The form ''wahadza'', ''kihadza'' is found instead of ''watindiga'', ''kitindiga'' in recent Swahili publications, but the Hadza do not consider ''watindiga'' to be pejorative. "Kindiga" may be a cognate from one of the local Bantu languages. "Kangeju" (pronounced ''Kangeyu'') is an obsolete German name of unclear origin. The name "Wahi" (pronounced ''Vahi'') found in Kohl-Larsen is a Sukuma name for the Hadza.

=== Orthography ===
Hadza does not have a written tradition. Two orthographies have seen recent use: the phonetic transcription of Tucker, Bryan & Woodburn (1977), used with some modification by Woodburn and other anthropologists, and the practical orthography of Anyawire et al. (2013). As it is based on the IPA, the Woodburn transcription is more accessible to linguists, while the Anyawire orthography is closer to those of Sandawe and other written languages of Tanzania. There is evidently some political controversy over the choice of orthography, with Hadza reporting they have been told that if they use the Anyawire orthography they will loose their land. There are two motivations for the Anyawire orthography: the perception that the IPA click letters of the Woodburn transcription portray the Hadza language as bizarre, when the Hadza people already have difficulties with being marginalized and a perception that they are not proper human beings, and the practical issue that the ubiquitous apostrophe of the Woodburn transcription makes it impractical for extended use. The apostrophes are generally omitted by those Hadza who have learned it, with the resulting texts often being unintelligible even to their authors; when the apostrophes are written, they greatly slow down the pace of writing. In the Anyawire orthography, doubled consonants and vowels are used for glottalized/ejective consonants and glottal stop, with the apostrophe only being used for the Swahili convention of ⟨ngʼ⟩ for /ŋ/.

The Anyawire orthography is used alongside the IPA in this article for accessibility with the dictionary. For clarity, an apostrophe will be retained for glottal stop between unlike vowels, for e.g. ''ae'' /ae/ vs ''aʼe'' /aʔe/. In practice, the Hadza are more likely to use epenthetic glides between vowels in hiatus, for e.g. ''aye'' /ae/ and ''ae'' /aʔe/.

=== Phonology ===
Hadza syllable structure is limited to CVN in native words. There are no vowel-initial roots, unless ''h'' is analyzed as an allophone of zero. Syllable-coda N surfaces as a homorganic nasal when a following consonant has a place of articulation to assimilate to, and as nasalization of the vowel before a glottal consonant (glottal stop and ''h''/zero) and pre-pausa. Coda N appears allophonically before voiced or glottalized nasal clicks. A moraic (syllabic?) nasal is also found word-initially in loans, where it may have a different pitch than the following vowel; such nasals are analyzed as NCV sequences rather than as a series of prenasalized consonants. Initial NCV may also occur when the initial hV syllable of an hVCV- word is elided and the C2 is a glottalized nasal click.

==== Stress and tone ====
Salient stress and pitch is not restricted to a particular syllable. There are no known minimal pairs, grammatical or lexical, for stress or tone. Pairs claimed in the literature have turned out to either not be distinct or not be minimal pairs. It may be that some loanwords retain their tone from their source language.

==== Vowels ====
There are five phonemic vowels, which are close to cardinal [a e i o u].

{| class="wikitable" style=text-align:center
|+Hadza vowels
| style="background: white" |
! Front
! Central
! Back
|-
! High
| i || || u
|-
! Mid
| e || || o
|-
! Low
| || a ||
|}

Phonetic nasal vowels, which are not common except before a consonant, are here analyzed as /VN/.

Phonetic long vowels are often sequences, as in ''kaha'' [kaː] ~ [kaɦa] 'to climb'. In some words, however, there is no allomorph with [ɦ], as in ''bôko'' [boːko] 'she' (forms a minimal pair with ''boko'' [boko] 'to be ill'). There is no known minimal set to establish long /Vː/ as distinct from a /VV/ sequence.

The mid vowels /e, o/ tend to rise when a high vowel, /i, u/, occurs in the following syllable, and may merge with /i, u/ in that position. However, such assimilation tends to be optional, even in suffixed pronouns such as ''onebii'' [ʔone̝biʔi] ~ ''unibii'' [ʔunibiʔi] 'we' (masculine, inclusive).

/u/ is relatively uncommon except in loans or due to vowel-height assimilation, and does not occur in grammatical morphemes unless the morpheme has a second syllable with vowel /i/.

Vowels tend to devoice pre-pausa and after a voiceless consonant. In the highly frequent pattern of word-final -V₁ʔV₁ (where the two vowels are the same, found in half of all grammatical suffixes and clitics though not frequently elsewhere), the vowel and preceding glottal stop tend to elide completely, whether pre-pausa or before another word.

==== Consonants ====
Hadza has at least 50 productive syllable onsets and several more marginal consonants.

{| class="wikitable" style=text-align:center
|+Principal Hadza consonants (Parentheses: loans. Dark background: may follow a nasal coda.)
! rowspan=2 colspan=2 |
! rowspan=2 | Labial
! rowspan=2 colspan=2 | (Denti-) alveolar
! rowspan=2 | (Post-) alveolar
! rowspan=2 | Palatal
! colspan=2 | Post-velar
! rowspan=2 | Glottal/ placeless
|- class=small
! plain
! labialized
|-
! rowspan=4 | Click
! Aspirated
|
| colspan=2 style="background: silver" | ǀʰ
| style="background: silver" |ǃʰ
| style="background: LightGray" |ǁʰ
| colspan=3 rowspan=4 style="background: white" |
|-
! Tenuis
|
| colspan=2 style="background: silver" | ǀ
| style="background: Gainsboro" |ǃ
| style="background: Gainsboro" |ǁ
|-
! Voiced nasal
|
| colspan=2 | ⁿǀ
| ⁿǃ
| ⁿǁ
|-
! Glottalized nasal
|
| colspan=2 | ⁿǀˀ
| ⁿǃˀ
| ⁿǁˀ
|-
! rowspan=5 | Plosive / affricate
|-
! Ejective
| pʼ
| colspan=2| t͜sʼ
| t͜ʃʼ
| c͜ʎ̥˔ʼ
| k͜xʼ
| k͜xʷʼ
| style="background: white" |
|-
! Aspirated
| style="background: silver" |pʰ
| style="background: silver" |tʰ
| style="background: silver" |t͜sʰ
| style="background: silver" |t͜ʃʰ
| c͜ʎ̥˔ʰ
| style="background: silver" |kʰ
| style="background: silver" |kʷʰ
|
|-
! Tenuis
| style="background: silver" |p
| style="background: silver" |t
| style="background: silver" |t͜s
| style="background: silver" |t͜ʃ
| c͜ʎ̥˔
| style="background: silver" |k
| style="background: silver" |kʷ
| style="background: silver" |ʔ
|-
! Voiced
| b
| (d)
| (d͜z)
| (d͜ʒ)
|
| (ɡ)
| (ɡʷ)
| style="background: white" |
|-
! colspan=2| Nasal
| m
| colspan=2| n
| colspan=2| (ɲ)
| (ŋ)
| (ŋʷ)
| //ƞ//
|-
! colspan=2 | Fricative
| (fʷ)
| ɬ
| s
| ʃ
|
|
|
|
|-
! colspan=2 | Sonorant
|
| colspan=2 | ɺ
|
| j
|
| w
| style="background: silver" | ɦ (zero?)
|}

Consonants in parentheses are thought to be loans, though the voiced obstruents at least are well-integrated and may be spreading to native roots.

Consonants with a grey background may follow a coda nasal. (That is, they may be C2 in a CVNCV pattern.) /ǃ/ and /ǁ/ (lighter grey) are not attested in this position, but it is suspected these are accidental gaps, given that only two roots are known with /ǀ/ after a nasal and that the gaps have not yet been investigated in the field. However, the only known case of /ƞǁʰ/, though clear when elicited, needs to be confirmed with additional speakers, so it's possible the constraint against laterals after a nasal coda extends to clicks.

The voice-onset time of consonants is reduced after a nasal coda: tenuis consonants may be partially or completely voiced, and the aspiration of aspirated consonants may be reduced or lost. This is true of clicks as well as of plosives and affricates. A /b/~/p/ distinction has not been found in this position despite /b/ being native.

Aspirated consonants may only be distinct in the first several syllables of a word. Many speakers distinguish aspirated plosives in only a few words, but maintain a robust distinction for affricates and clicks. The reason for this asymmetry is unknown.

The glottalized nasal clicks surface as e.g. [ǃʔ] post-pausa and often [ŋ͡nʔǃ] intervocalically. Accounts differ as to whether there is voiceless nasal airflow in post-pausa position.

Aspirated clicks may have a delayed and clearly audible posterior release, e.g. [ǃʰ] ~ [ǃkʰ]. This release has the same post-velar articulation as the k-series of plosives.

The ǃ-clicks tend to be weakly articulated, though, so far as is known, not slapped as has been reported from Sandawe. When intervocalic, /ⁿǃ/ may surface as or nearly as [ŋ͡n]. The ǁ-clicks, on the other hand, are typically quite salient.

Among the ejectives, /pʼ/ is uncommon. Many vary between affricate and fricative realizations. [sʼ, ʃʼ, xʼ, xʷʼ] have been noted. /k͜xʼ/ and /k͜xʷʼ/ have plosive allophones [kʼ, kʷʼ], and at least /k͜xʼ/ has a lateral allophone [k͜ʟ̝̊ʼ]. /t͜sʼ/ may be the ejective correlate of both the /t/ and /t͜s/ series of pulmonic consonants.

The palatal lateral affricates may be pronounced with an alveolar onset, e.g. [t͜ʎ̥˔], or without involving the front of the tongue, e.g. [c͜ʎ̥˔]. Speakers express no preference when hearing these articulations. The fricative /ɬ/ is alveolar; a palatal articulation is not accepted. Given that the fricative may be pronounced as an affricate in some prosodic situations, this means that there is a three-way phonetic place contrast among laterals: [t͜ɬ] vs [t͜ʎ̥˔ ~ c͜ʎ̥˔] and [t͜ʎ̥˔ʼ ~ c͜ʎ̥˔ʼ] vs [k͜ʟ̝̊ʼ].

/ɺ/ is typically realized as [l] post-pausa and [ɾ] elsewhere, though [ɺ] is not uncommon. It also tends toward [l] when it occurs as both C1 and C2, as in /ɺoɺa/ (sp. rabbit).

[ɦ] and zero may be allophones. If so, and given that vowel-initial suffixes may elide a stem-final vowel, it would be simplest to posit that the phoneme is zero and [ɦ] an allophone of zero, rather than that /ɦ/ is elided under some conditions. A predictive conditioning environment for the presence or absence of [ɦ] has not been discovered, but prosody may play a role; even vowel-initial suffixes and clitics may be realized with an initial [ɦ] when given contrastive prosody. Assimilation or bilingualism may be involved in the case of loanwords. For instance, an Isanzu loan for 'snake' was recorded as ''ihato'' /ʔiɦato/ at the beginning of the 20th century (and perhaps in an Isanzu-biligual area) but as ''iyato'' /ʔiato/ at the beginning of the 21st century in Mangola.

The glides /j/ and /w/ are not distinctive next to front (/i, e/) and back (/o, u/) vowels, respectively. It is possible that they are allophones of /i/ and /u/. When they occur word-initially, purported /jV, wV/ often appear as [ʔijV] and [ʔuwV]. This is true even of a ubiquitous sequential auxiliary (''yamo'' [jamo] ~ ''iamo'' [ʔiamo] in the 3msg posterior (past?) tense). /j/ does however occur in two object suffixes where such variation has not been noted. In the anthropological and linguistic literature, glides are often written between unlike vowels. For example, the 3msg non-past copula clitic ''-ha'' /ɦa/ is often transcribed 'ya' after a front vowel and 'wa' after a back vowel.

===== Marginal consonants =====

A labial click, variously reported as [ⁿʘʷ] or [ⁿʘˀ], is found in a single root, ''mcwa-'', that is mimetic for a kiss and often made with an accompanying kiss to the hand. ''Mcwa-'' may be allomorphic with ''ncuwa-'' /ⁿǀua/ with a dental click.

A trill [r] is used by some speakers in some words, such as ''karro'' /karo/ (hunting/sighting name for a female giraffe), perhaps reflecting the pronunciation of the word in the language it was borrowed from. It is replaced with /ɺ/ (''karo'' /kaɺo/) by other speakers.

An implosive [ɓ] is used by some speakers in some words, perhaps reflecting the pronunciation of the word in the source language, though in some instances it might co-occur with ejectives, which would be difficult to explain away as a loan (e.g. ''beggawuko'' /bekx’auko/ 'elephant', apparently [ɓekx’auko] in some recordings). It is replaced with /b/ by other speakers. Other implosives have not been noted.

A fricative [x] occurs lexicalized in an expletive, ''ahho'' [ʔaxo], where otherwise the root is ''akho'' /ʔakʰo/ 'genitals'. (/kʰ/ is commonly realized as [kx].)

Word-initial /mu/ and occasionally /mo/ are optionally realized as syllabic [m̩], for example in the common greeting ''mutana'' ~ ''mtana''. This is a Bantu alternation.

/v/ may occasionally be found in loans, as in mimetic ''vûvuko'' ~ ''fûfuko'' /vuːvuko ~ fuːfuko/ 'propeller toy', though it is normally replaced with /f/. [v] (or perhaps [β]) has been reported for /b/, for example in Bleek's transcriptions of the plural suffixes ''-bee'' and ''-bii'' as 've' and 'vi'.

===== Phonotactics =====
All clicks within a root must be the same, as in /ǀikiɺiƞǀa/ 'pinkie'. Although there is a tendency for clicks and ejectives to occur as C1, in a quarter of click words the click occurs as C2.

Clicks and ejectives may co-occur, but always in that order. When they co-occur, there appears to be some sibilant harmony, with a strong tendency for /t͜sʼ/ to occur with denti-alveolar clicks and for /c͜ʎ̥˔ʼ/ to occur with lateral clicks.

When an aspirated consonant occurs more than once in a word, the first tends to deaspirate (Grassmann's/Katupha's Law, though generally optional). A coda N may block deaspiration, as in the allomorphs /peǃeǃʰe/ ~ /peƞǃʰeƞǃʰe/ 'to rush'. NC sequences may loose their nasal segment as well, as in /ƞtʰaɺaƞtʰaɺaʔabiʔi/ ~ /taɺaƞtʰaɺaʔabiʔi/ '(arrow) barbs'. It is not clear to what extent these patterns hold with two different aspirated consonants.

===Swadesh lists===
Only roots are given. For example, the word for 'name', given as the root ''akhana'' below, is actually feminine plural ''akhanabee''.

====Wichmann & Holman basic 40-word list (ordered by stability)====

#louse ''ccamazzi'' /ⁿǀˀamat͜sʼi/<ref>cf. ''ccezze'' /ⁿǀˀet͜s’e/ 'tick'</ref>
#two ''piye'' /pie/, ''konxa'' /koⁿǁa/ (verb)
#water ''ati'' /ʔati/ (mpl; msg = 'rain, river')
#ear ''hajjapitchi'' /ɦat͜ʃ’apit͜ʃʰi/<ref>from ''hazzape'' /ɦat͜s’ape/ 'leaf'?</ref>
#to die ''taxxi'' /taⁿǁˀi/, ''misi'' /misi/ (Datooga?)
#I *one /ʔone/, */-ko/<ref>If *-ko-a > /-kʷa/ rather than *-kʷa-ʔV > /-koʔo/.</ref>
#liver ''xxe'' /ⁿǁˀe/
#eye ''akhwa'' /ʔakʷʰa/
#hand, arm ''ukhwa'' /ʔukʷʰa/
#hear ''nxaʼe'' /ⁿǁaʔe/
#tree ''zziti'' /t͜s’iti/
#fish ''ccama'' /ⁿǀˀama/, ''ccara'' /ⁿǀˀaɺa/
#name ''akhana'' /ʔakʰana/
#stone ''haqqa'' /ɦaⁿǃˀa/
#tooth ''aha'' /ʔaɦa/
#breast ''iriba'' /ʔiɺiba/ ('breasts, milk'. Cushitic); ''ggazza'' /k͜x’at͜s’a/ ('flesh at sternum')
#thou ''the'' /tʰe/, /-en-/ (m), /-n-/ (f)
#path ''yeke'' /jeke/
#bone ''midla'' /mic͜ʎ̥˔’a/ (cf. Dahalo)
#tongue ''ncata'' /ⁿǀata/
#skin ''ahu'' /ʔaɦu/
#night ''zzifi'' /t͜s’ifi/ (m; f = 'day')
#leaf ''hazzape'' /ɦat͜s’ape/
#rain = 'water' (msg = 'rain, river'; mpl = 'water')
#kill ''xô'' /ǁoː/
#blood ''athama'' /ʔatʰama/
#horn ''roo'' /ɺoʔo/
#person ''haza'' /ɦad͜za/ (human), ''unu'' /ʔunu/ (person)
#knee ''guringuri'' /ɡuɺiƞɡuɺi/ ~ ''gurunguri'' /ɡuɺuƞɡuɺi/ (Cushitic? pan-African)
#one ''itchâme'' /ʔit͜ʃʰaːme/
#nose ''intawe'' /ʔiƞtʰawe/
#full ''ggaʼe'' /k͜x’aʔe/, *cco- /ⁿǀˀo-/
#come ''za'' /d͜za/ (Bantu), ''botco'' /bot͜ʃo/ (stem of imperative)
#star ''ntsa'' /ƞt͜sʰa/, ''sa'' /sa/ (Cushitic?)<ref>Anyawire et al. (2013) only found ''ntsa''. Tucker et al. (1977) report ''sa'' 'star', and Woodburn confirms the form he knows does not have a nasal onset. /ƞ/ + /sa/ would generate /ƞt͜sʰa/. Indeed, speakers do not care if the latter is written ''ntsa'' or ''nsa''. There are several Cushitic loanwords that have an onset that varies as C ~ NC in Hadza where the source language is only reconstructed with C.</ref>
#mountain ''xxudle'' /ⁿǁˀuc͜ʎ̥˔’e/
#fire ''zzoko'' /t͜s’oko/
#we (exclusive) ''ô'' /ʔoː/, /-j-/
#to drink ''fa'' /fʷa/
#to see ''chî'' /ǀʰiː/ ~ ''cî'' /ǀiː/
#bark ''heggwa'' /ɦek͜xʷ’a/
#new ''zana'' /d͜zana/<ref>from ''za'' 'come'?</ref>
#dog ''xhaano'' /ǁʰaʔano/, ''tîngi'' /tiːƞki/
#sun ''isho'' /ʔiʃo/

====Other Swadesh-100 words====

===Notes===
<references/>

===Bibliography===

* Mariamu Anyawire, G.G. Bala, Kirk Miller (ed.) & Bonny Sands (2013). ''A Hadza Lexicon'' (ms).
* Roger Blench (2008). [https://web.archive.org/web/20110721180216/http://www.rogerblench.info/Language%20data/Khoesan/Blench%20paper%20Riezlern%202008.pdf Hadza Animal Names.] Paper presented at the 3rd International Symposium on Khoisan Languages and Linguistics, Riezlern, 7–9 July 2008.
* Niklas Edenmyr (2004). [https://web.archive.org/web/20070706040409/http://www.african.gu.se/aa/pdfs/aa04003.pdf The semantics of Hadza gender assignment: a few notes from the field.] ''Africa & Asia'', no. 4, Department of Oriental and African languages, Göteborg University, 3–19.
* Edward Elderkin (1978). Loans in Hadza: internal evidence from consonants. ''Occasional Papers'' 3, Dar es Salaam.
* Peter Ladefoged, Ian Maddieson & Bonny Sands, Bonny (1991). [http://archive.phonetics.ucla.edu/Language/HTS/hts.html Hadza wordlist and sound files]. UCLA Phonetics Lab Archive.
* ———— (1993). [https://www.academia.edu/17743030/The_phonetic_structures_of_Hadza The Phonetic Structures of Hadza.] In [http://repositories.cdlib.org/uclaling/wpp/No84/ ''UCLA Working Papers in Phonetics'' No. 84: ''Fieldwork Studies in Targeted Languages'',] 67–87.
* Kirk Miller (2008). [https://www.academia.edu/36533859/Hadza_grammar_notes Hadza Grammar Notes.] Paper presented at the 3rd International Symposium on Khoisan Languages and Linguistics, Riezlern, 7–9 July 2008.
* ———— (2009). [https://www.academia.edu/36533860/Highlights_of_Hadza_Fieldwork Highlights of Hadza fieldwork.] Paper presented at the 83rd Annual Meeting of the Linguistic Society of America, San Francisco, 8–11 January 2009.
* ———— (2016). Hadza Kinship Terms. In Shah & Brenzinger, eds., ''Khoisan Languages and Linguistics: Proceedings of the 5th International Symposium, July 13–17, 2014, Riezlern/Kleinwalsertal.'' Cologne: Rüdiger Köppe, 277–333.
* Bonny Sands (1998). The Linguistic Relationship between Hadza and Khoisan. In Schladt, Matthias (ed.) ''Language, Identity, and Conceptualization among the Khoisan'' (Quellen zur Khoisan-Forschung Vol. 15), Cologne: Rüdiger Köppe, 265–283.
* ———— (2013). Phonetics and phonology: Hadza; Tonology: Hadza; Morphology: Hadza; Syntax: Hadza. In Rainer Vossen, ed., ''The Khoesan Languages''. Oxford: Routledge.
*Sergei Starostin. [http://starling.rinet.ru/cgi-bin/response.cgi?root=new100&morpho=0&basename=new100\hdz\hdz&limit=-1 Hadza basic lexicon.] Global Lexicostatistical Database. [much of the parsing is speculation, and Bleek's posthumous data is unreliable]
* A.N. Tucker, M.A. Bryan & James Woodburn as co-author for Hadza (1977). The East African Click Languages: A Phonetic Comparison. In J.G. Moehlig, Franz Rottland, Bernd Heine, eds, ''Zur Sprachgeschichte und Ethnohistorie in Afrika.'' Berlin: Dietrich Diener.

[[Category:En]]
[[Category:Single language]]

Hadza

2019-03-05T23:32:38Z

Kirk Miller: /* Bibliography */

{{InfoboxLanguage
|Language = Hadza
|Autonym = ''Haza, hazane''
|Pronunciation = ɦad͜za
|Ethn15name = Hadza
|Countries = Tanzania
|OfficialLg = none
|OLACname = Hadza
|WALSLoc = 3°45′ S, 35°10′ E
|Speakers = 1,000
|Family = [[isolate]]
|Genus = Hadza
|WritingSyst = none
|ISO3 = hts
}}

Hadza is a language isolate of Tanzania.

=== Location and Speakers ===
Hadza is spoken along the entire eastern shore of alkaline Lake Eyasi, which lies at the base of the Serengeti Plateau in Tanzania, from Mount Oldeani in the north to the Isanzu agricultural areas in the south.

There is a small population of Hadza to the west of the lake, in ''Dunduina'' /duƞtuina/<ref>This article uses the old IPA letter for a moraic nasal, ⟨ƞ⟩, which was retired because it has no specific phonetic value. In Hadza, the moraic nasal is homorganic with a following consonant.</ref> 'Sukumaland', but their number seems to be decreasing and many only speak Sukuma and Swahili.

There are approximately 1,000 speakers of Hadza, most now bilingual in Swahili. Other second languages include [[Isanzu]] in the south, [[Sukuma]] in the west, and to a lesser degree [[Datooga]] in the center (e.g. near the Yaeda Valley) and [[Iraqw]] on the margins of Iraqw territory. The northern Hadza area, around the town of Mangola, was largely monolingual until the introduction of Standard Swahili after independence.

As of 2005, about 40% of Hadza lived as full-time hunter-gatherers, and language transmission was robust in the areas east of the lake, but since then there have been reports of children speaking Swahili east of the lake, perhaps due to the influx of ''Dunduinabee'' abandoning their territory in the west.

=== Classification ===
Hadza is a [[language isolate]]. Greenberg classified it as [[Khoisan]] due to its use of [[click consonant]]s. If it were not for the clicks, it's likely that Hadza would have been classified as [[Cushitic]].

=== Dialects ===
There do not appear to be any dialects of Hadza, presumably due to the mobility of its speakers. There are some regional differences of vocabulary, however, and speakers note that there are many more Bantu loans in the south.

=== Name ===
"Hadza" is the most common name in the literature. ''Haza'' /ɦad͜za/ simply means 'human being'. The derivative "Hadzane" (/ɦad͜zane/ 'in the manner of the people') is sometimes encountered as the name of the language. The feminine plural ''hazabee'' /ɦad͜zabeʔe/ may be used for the people, though it is usually spelled "Hadzabe" due to devoicing of the final vowel. (The feminine is the inclusive gender in the plural.) "Hadzapi" is the masculine copular form ''hazaphii'' /ɦad͜zapʰiʔi/. "Hatza" and "Hatsa" are older German spellings.

"Tindiga" is from the Swahili name, ''watindiga'' 'people of the marsh grass', presumably named for the large spring in Mangola. The form ''wahadza'', ''kihadza'' is found instead of ''watindiga'', ''kitindiga'' in recent Swahili publications, but the Hadza do not consider ''watindiga'' to be pejorative. "Kindiga" may be a cognate from one of the local Bantu languages. "Kangeju" (pronounced ''Kangeyu'') is an obsolete German name of unclear origin. The name "Wahi" (pronounced ''Vahi'') found in Kohl-Larsen is a Sukuma name for the Hadza.

=== Orthography ===
Hadza does not have a written tradition. Two orthographies have seen recent use: the phonetic transcription of Tucker, Bryan & Woodburn (1977), used with some modification by Woodburn and other anthropologists, and the practical orthography of Anyawire et al. (2013). As it is based on the IPA, the Woodburn transcription is more accessible to linguists, while the Anyawire orthography is closer to those of Sandawe and other written languages of Tanzania. There is evidently some political controversy over the choice of orthography, with Hadza reporting they have been told that if they use the Anyawire orthography they will loose their land. There are two motivations for the Anyawire orthography: the perception that the IPA click letters of the Woodburn transcription portray the Hadza language as bizarre, when the Hadza people already have difficulties with being marginalized and a perception that they are not proper human beings, and the practical issue that the ubiquitous apostrophe of the Woodburn transcription makes it impractical for extended use. The apostrophes are generally omitted by those Hadza who have learned it, with the resulting texts often being unintelligible even to their authors; when the apostrophes are written, they greatly slow down the pace of writing. In the Anyawire orthography, doubled consonants and vowels are used for glottalized/ejective consonants and glottal stop, with the apostrophe only being used for the Swahili convention of ⟨ngʼ⟩ for /ŋ/.

The Anyawire orthography is used alongside the IPA in this article for accessibility with the dictionary. For clarity, an apostrophe will be retained for glottal stop between unlike vowels, for e.g. ''ae'' /ae/ vs ''aʼe'' /aʔe/. In practice, the Hadza are more likely to use epenthetic glides between vowels in hiatus, for e.g. ''aye'' /ae/ and ''ae'' /aʔe/.

=== Phonology ===
Hadza syllable structure is limited to CVN in native words. There are no vowel-initial roots, unless ''h'' is analyzed as an allophone of zero. Syllable-coda N surfaces as a homorganic nasal when a following consonant has a place of articulation to assimilate to, and as nasalization of the vowel before a glottal consonant (glottal stop and ''h''/zero) and pre-pausa. Coda N appears allophonically before voiced or glottalized nasal clicks. A moraic (syllabic?) nasal is also found word-initially in loans, where it may have a different pitch than the following vowel; such nasals are analyzed as NCV sequences rather than as a series of prenasalized consonants. Initial NCV may also occur when the initial hV syllable of an hVCV- word is elided and the C2 is a glottalized nasal click.

==== Stress and tone ====
Salient stress and pitch is not restricted to a particular syllable. There are no known minimal pairs, grammatical or lexical, for stress or tone. Pairs claimed in the literature have turned out to either not be distinct or not be minimal pairs. It may be that some loanwords retain their tone from their source language.

==== Vowels ====
There are five phonemic vowels, which are close to cardinal [a e i o u].

{| class="wikitable" style=text-align:center
|+Hadza vowels
| style="background: white" |
! Front
! Central
! Back
|-
! High
| i || || u
|-
! Mid
| e || || o
|-
! Low
| || a ||
|}

Phonetic nasal vowels, which are not common except before a consonant, are here analyzed as /VN/.

Phonetic long vowels are often sequences, as in ''kaha'' [kaː] ~ [kaɦa] 'to climb'. In some words, however, there is no allomorph with [ɦ], as in ''bôko'' [boːko] 'she' (forms a minimal pair with ''boko'' [boko] 'to be ill'). There is no known minimal set to establish long /Vː/ as distinct from a /VV/ sequence.

The mid vowels /e, o/ tend to rise when a high vowel, /i, u/, occurs in the following syllable, and may merge with /i, u/ in that position. However, such assimilation tends to be optional, even in suffixed pronouns such as ''onebii'' [ʔone̝biʔi] ~ ''unibii'' [ʔunibiʔi] 'we' (masculine, inclusive).

/u/ is relatively uncommon except in loans or due to vowel-height assimilation, and does not occur in grammatical morphemes unless the morpheme has a second syllable with vowel /i/.

Vowels tend to devoice pre-pausa and after a voiceless consonant. In the highly frequent pattern of word-final -V₁ʔV₁ (where the two vowels are the same, found in half of all grammatical suffixes and clitics though not frequently elsewhere), the vowel and preceding glottal stop tend to elide completely, whether pre-pausa or before another word.

==== Consonants ====
Hadza has at least 50 productive syllable onsets and several more marginal consonants.

{| class="wikitable" style=text-align:center
|+Principal Hadza consonants (Parentheses: loans. Dark background: may follow a nasal coda.)
! rowspan=2 colspan=2 |
! rowspan=2 | Labial
! rowspan=2 colspan=2 | (Denti-) alveolar
! rowspan=2 | (Post-) alveolar
! rowspan=2 | Palatal
! colspan=2 | Post-velar
! rowspan=2 | Glottal/ placeless
|- class=small
! plain
! labialized
|-
! rowspan=4 | Click
! Aspirated
|
| colspan=2 style="background: silver" | ǀʰ
| style="background: silver" |ǃʰ
| style="background: LightGray" |ǁʰ
| colspan=3 rowspan=4 style="background: white" |
|-
! Tenuis
|
| colspan=2 style="background: silver" | ǀ
| style="background: Gainsboro" |ǃ
| style="background: Gainsboro" |ǁ
|-
! Voiced nasal
|
| colspan=2 | ⁿǀ
| ⁿǃ
| ⁿǁ
|-
! Glottalized nasal
|
| colspan=2 | ⁿǀˀ
| ⁿǃˀ
| ⁿǁˀ
|-
! rowspan=5 | Plosive / affricate
|-
! Ejective
| pʼ
| colspan=2| t͜sʼ
| t͜ʃʼ
| c͜ʎ̥˔ʼ
| k͜xʼ
| k͜xʷʼ
| style="background: white" |
|-
! Aspirated
| style="background: silver" |pʰ
| style="background: silver" |tʰ
| style="background: silver" |t͜sʰ
| style="background: silver" |t͜ʃʰ
| c͜ʎ̥˔ʰ
| style="background: silver" |kʰ
| style="background: silver" |kʷʰ
|
|-
! Tenuis
| style="background: silver" |p
| style="background: silver" |t
| style="background: silver" |t͜s
| style="background: silver" |t͜ʃ
| c͜ʎ̥˔
| style="background: silver" |k
| style="background: silver" |kʷ
| style="background: silver" |ʔ
|-
! Voiced
| b
| (d)
| (d͜z)
| (d͜ʒ)
|
| (ɡ)
| (ɡʷ)
| style="background: white" |
|-
! colspan=2| Nasal
| m
| colspan=2| n
| colspan=2| (ɲ)
| (ŋ)
| (ŋʷ)
| //ƞ//
|-
! colspan=2 | Fricative
| (fʷ)
| ɬ
| s
| ʃ
|
|
|
|
|-
! colspan=2 | Sonorant
|
| colspan=2 | ɺ
|
| j
|
| w
| style="background: silver" | ɦ (zero?)
|}

Consonants in parentheses are thought to be loans, though the voiced obstruents at least are well-integrated and may be spreading to native roots.

Consonants with a grey background may follow a coda nasal. (That is, they may be C2 in a CVNCV pattern.) /ǃ/ and /ǁ/ (lighter grey) are not attested in this position, but it is suspected these are accidental gaps, given that only two roots are known with /ǀ/ after a nasal and that the gaps have not yet been investigated in the field. However, the only known case of /ƞǁʰ/, though clear when elicited, needs to be confirmed with additional speakers, so it's possible the constraint against laterals after a nasal coda extends to clicks.

The voice-onset time of consonants is reduced after a nasal coda: tenuis consonants may be partially or completely voiced, and the aspiration of aspirated consonants may be reduced or lost. This is true of clicks as well as of plosives and affricates. A /b/~/p/ distinction has not been found in this position despite /b/ being native.

Aspirated consonants may only be distinct in the first several syllables of a word. Many speakers distinguish aspirated plosives in only a few words, but maintain a robust distinction for affricates and clicks. The reason for this asymmetry is unknown.

The glottalized nasal clicks surface as e.g. [ǃʔ] post-pausa and often [ŋ͡nʔǃ] intervocalically. Accounts differ as to whether there is voiceless nasal airflow in post-pausa position.

Aspirated clicks may have a delayed and clearly audible posterior release, e.g. [ǃʰ] ~ [ǃkʰ]. This release has the same post-velar articulation as the k-series of plosives.

The ǃ-clicks tend to be weakly articulated, though, so far as is known, not slapped as has been reported from Sandawe. When intervocalic, /ⁿǃ/ may surface as or nearly as [ŋ͡n]. The ǁ-clicks, on the other hand, are typically quite salient.

Among the ejectives, /pʼ/ is uncommon. Many vary between affricate and fricative realizations. [sʼ, ʃʼ, xʼ, xʷʼ] have been noted. /k͜xʼ/ and /k͜xʷʼ/ have plosive allophones [kʼ, kʷʼ], and at least /k͜xʼ/ has a lateral allophone [k͜ʟ̝̊ʼ]. /t͜sʼ/ may be the ejective correlate of both the /t/ and /t͜s/ series of pulmonic consonants.

The palatal lateral affricates may be pronounced with an alveolar onset, e.g. [t͜ʎ̥˔], or without involving the front of the tongue, e.g. [c͜ʎ̥˔]. Speakers express no preference when hearing these articulations. The fricative /ɬ/ is alveolar; a palatal articulation is not accepted. Given that the fricative may be pronounced as an affricate in some prosodic situations, this means that there is a three-way phonetic place contrast among laterals: [t͜ɬ] vs [t͜ʎ̥˔ ~ c͜ʎ̥˔] and [t͜ʎ̥˔ʼ ~ c͜ʎ̥˔ʼ] vs [k͜ʟ̝̊ʼ].

/ɺ/ is typically realized as [l] post-pausa and [ɾ] elsewhere, though [ɺ] is not uncommon. It also tends toward [l] when it occurs as both C1 and C2, as in /ɺoɺa/ (sp. rabbit).

[ɦ] and zero may be allophones. If so, and given that vowel-initial suffixes may elide a stem-final vowel, it would be simplest to posit that the phoneme is zero and [ɦ] an allophone of zero, rather than that /ɦ/ is elided under some conditions. A predictive conditioning environment for the presence or absence of [ɦ] has not been discovered, but prosody may play a role; even vowel-initial suffixes and clitics may be realized with an initial [ɦ] when given contrastive prosody. Assimilation or bilingualism may be involved in the case of loanwords. For instance, an Isanzu loan for 'snake' was recorded as ''ihato'' /ʔiɦato/ at the beginning of the 20th century (and perhaps in an Isanzu-biligual area) but as ''iyato'' /ʔiato/ at the beginning of the 21st century in Mangola.

The glides /j/ and /w/ are not distinctive next to front (/i, e/) and back (/o, u/) vowels, respectively. It is possible that they are allophones of /i/ and /u/. When they occur word-initially, purported /jV, wV/ often appear as [ʔijV] and [ʔuwV]. This is true even of a ubiquitous sequential auxiliary (''yamo'' [jamo] ~ ''iamo'' [ʔiamo] in the 3msg posterior (past?) tense). /j/ does however occur in two object suffixes where such variation has not been noted. In the anthropological and linguistic literature, glides are often written between unlike vowels. For example, the 3msg non-past copula clitic ''-ha'' /ɦa/ is often transcribed 'ya' after a front vowel and 'wa' after a back vowel.

===== Marginal consonants =====

A labial click, variously reported as [ⁿʘʷ] or [ⁿʘˀ], is found in a single root, ''mcwa-'', that is mimetic for a kiss and often made with an accompanying kiss to the hand. ''Mcwa-'' may be allomorphic with ''ncuwa-'' /ⁿǀua/ with a dental click.

A trill [r] is used by some speakers in some words, such as ''karro'' /karo/ (hunting/sighting name for a female giraffe), perhaps reflecting the pronunciation of the word in the language it was borrowed from. It is replaced with /ɺ/ (''karo'' /kaɺo/) by other speakers.

An implosive [ɓ] is used by some speakers in some words, perhaps reflecting the pronunciation of the word in the source language, though in some instances it might co-occur with ejectives, which would be difficult to explain away as a loan (e.g. ''beggawuko'' /bekx’auko/ 'elephant', apparently [ɓekx’auko] in some recordings). It is replaced with /b/ by other speakers. Other implosives have not been noted.

A fricative [x] occurs lexicalized in an expletive, ''ahho'' [ʔaxo], where otherwise the root is ''akho'' /ʔakʰo/ 'genitals'. (/kʰ/ is commonly realized as [kx].)

Word-initial /mu/ and occasionally /mo/ are optionally realized as syllabic [m̩], for example in the common greeting ''mutana'' ~ ''mtana''. This is a Bantu alternation.

/v/ may occasionally be found in loans, as in mimetic ''vûvuko'' ~ ''fûfuko'' /vuːvuko ~ fuːfuko/ 'propeller toy', though it is normally replaced with /f/. [v] (or perhaps [β]) has been reported for /b/, for example in Bleek's transcriptions of the plural suffixes ''-bee'' and ''-bii'' as 've' and 'vi'.

===== Phonotactics =====
All clicks within a root must be the same, as in /ǀikiɺiƞǀa/ 'pinkie'. Although there is a tendency for clicks and ejectives to occur as C1, in a quarter of click words the click occurs as C2.

Clicks and ejectives may co-occur, but always in that order. When they co-occur, there appears to be some sibilant harmony, with a strong tendency for /t͜sʼ/ to occur with denti-alveolar clicks and for /c͜ʎ̥˔ʼ/ to occur with lateral clicks.

When an aspirated consonant occurs more than once in a word, the first tends to deaspirate (Grassmann's/Katupha's Law, though generally optional). A coda N may block deaspiration, as in the allomorphs /peǃeǃʰe/ ~ /peƞǃʰeƞǃʰe/ 'to rush'. NC sequences may loose their nasal segment as well, as in /ƞtʰaɺaƞtʰaɺaʔabiʔi/ ~ /taɺaƞtʰaɺaʔabiʔi/ '(arrow) barbs'. It is not clear to what extent these patterns hold with two different aspirated consonants.

===Swadesh lists===
Only roots are given. For example, the word for 'name', given as the root ''akhana'' below, is actually feminine plural ''akhanabee''.

====Wichmann & Holman basic 40-word list (ordered by stability)====

#louse ''ccamazzi'' /ⁿǀˀamat͜sʼi/<ref>cf. ''ccezze'' /ⁿǀˀet͜s’e/ 'tick'</ref>
#two ''piye'' /pie/, ''konxa'' /koⁿǁa/ (verb)
#water ''ati'' /ʔati/ (mpl; msg = 'rain, river')
#ear ''hajjapitchi'' /ɦat͜ʃ’apit͜ʃʰi/<ref>from ''hazzape'' /ɦat͜s’ape/ 'leaf'?</ref>
#to die ''taxxi'' /taⁿǁˀi/, ''misi'' /misi/ (Datooga?)
#I *one /ʔone/, */-ko/<ref>If *-ko-a > /-kʷa/ rather than *-kʷa-ʔV > /-koʔo/.</ref>
#liver ''xxe'' /ⁿǁˀe/
#eye ''akhwa'' /ʔakʷʰa/
#hand, arm ''ukhwa'' /ʔukʷʰa/
#hear ''nxaʼe'' /ⁿǁaʔe/
#tree ''zziti'' /t͜s’iti/
#fish ''ccama'' /ⁿǀˀama/, ''ccara'' /ⁿǀˀaɺa/
#name ''akhana'' /ʔakʰana/
#stone ''haqqa'' /ɦaⁿǃˀa/
#tooth ''aha'' /ʔaɦa/
#breast ''iriba'' /ʔiɺiba/ ('breasts, milk'. Cushitic); ''ggazza'' /k͜x’at͜s’a/ ('flesh at sternum')
#thou ''the'' /tʰe/, /-en-/ (m), /-n-/ (f)
#path ''yeke'' /jeke/
#bone ''midla'' /mic͜ʎ̥˔’a/ (cf. Dahalo)
#tongue ''ncata'' /ⁿǀata/
#skin ''ahu'' /ʔaɦu/
#night ''zzifi'' /t͜s’ifi/ (m; f = 'day')
#leaf ''hazzape'' /ɦat͜s’ape/
#rain = 'water' (msg = 'rain, river'; mpl = 'water')
#kill ''xô'' /ǁoː/
#blood ''athama'' /ʔatʰama/
#horn ''roo'' /ɺoʔo/
#person ''haza'' /ɦad͜za/ (human), ''unu'' /ʔunu/ (person)
#knee ''guringuri'' /ɡuɺiƞɡuɺi/ ~ ''gurunguri'' /ɡuɺuƞɡuɺi/ (Cushitic? pan-African)
#one ''itchâme'' /ʔit͜ʃʰaːme/
#nose ''intawe'' /ʔiƞtʰawe/
#full ''ggaʼe'' /k͜x’aʔe/, *cco- /ⁿǀˀo-/
#come ''za'' /d͜za/ (Bantu), ''botco'' /bot͜ʃo/ (stem of imperative)
#star ''ntsa'' /ƞt͜sʰa/, ''sa'' /sa/ (Cushitic?)<ref>Anyawire et al. (2013) only found ''ntsa''. Tucker et al. (1977) report ''sa'' 'star', and Woodburn confirms the form he knows does not have a nasal onset. /ƞ/ + /sa/ would generate /ƞt͜sʰa/. Indeed, speakers do not care if the latter is written ''ntsa'' or ''nsa''. There are several Cushitic loanwords that have an onset that varies as C ~ NC in Hadza where the source language is only reconstructed with C.</ref>
#mountain ''xxudle'' /ⁿǁˀuc͜ʎ̥˔’e/
#fire ''zzoko'' /t͜s’oko/
#we (exclusive) ''ô'' /ʔoː/, /-j-/
#to drink ''fa'' /fʷa/
#to see ''chî'' /ǀʰiː/ ~ ''cî'' /ǀiː/
#bark ''heggwa'' /ɦek͜xʷ’a/
#new ''zana'' /d͜zana/<ref>from ''za'' 'come'?</ref>
#dog ''xhaano'' /ǁʰaʔano/, ''tîngi'' /tiːƞki/
#sun ''isho'' /ʔiʃo/

====Other Swadesh-100 words====

===Notes===
<references/>

===Bibliography===

* Mariamu Anyawire, G.G. Bala, Kirk Miller & Bonny Sands (2013). ''A Hadza Lexicon'' (ms). Kirk Miller, ed.
* Roger Blench (2008). [https://web.archive.org/web/20110721180216/http://www.rogerblench.info/Language%20data/Khoesan/Blench%20paper%20Riezlern%202008.pdf Hadza Animal Names.] Paper presented at the 3rd International Symposium on Khoisan Languages and Linguistics, Riezlern, 7–9 July 2008.
* Niklas Edenmyr (2004). [https://web.archive.org/web/20070706040409/http://www.african.gu.se/aa/pdfs/aa04003.pdf The semantics of Hadza gender assignment: a few notes from the field.] ''Africa & Asia'', no. 4, Department of Oriental and African languages, Göteborg University, 3–19.
* Edward Elderkin (1978). Loans in Hadza: internal evidence from consonants. ''Occasional Papers'' 3, Dar es Salaam.
* Peter Ladefoged, Ian Maddieson & Bonny Sands, Bonny (1991). [http://archive.phonetics.ucla.edu/Language/HTS/hts.html Hadza wordlist and sound files]. UCLA Phonetics Lab Archive.
* ———— (1993). [https://www.academia.edu/17743030/The_phonetic_structures_of_Hadza The Phonetic Structures of Hadza.] In [http://repositories.cdlib.org/uclaling/wpp/No84/ ''UCLA Working Papers in Phonetics'' No. 84: ''Fieldwork Studies in Targeted Languages'',] 67–87.
* Kirk Miller (2008). [https://www.academia.edu/36533859/Hadza_grammar_notes Hadza Grammar Notes.] Paper presented at the 3rd International Symposium on Khoisan Languages and Linguistics, Riezlern, 7–9 July 2008.
* ———— (2009). [https://www.academia.edu/36533860/Highlights_of_Hadza_Fieldwork Highlights of Hadza fieldwork.] Paper presented at the 83rd Annual Meeting of the Linguistic Society of America, San Francisco, 8–11 January 2009.
* ———— (2016). Hadza Kinship Terms. In Shah & Brenzinger, eds., ''Khoisan Languages and Linguistics: Proceedings of the 5th International Symposium, July 13–17, 2014, Riezlern/Kleinwalsertal.'' Cologne: Rüdiger Köppe, 277–333.
* Bonny Sands (1998). The Linguistic Relationship between Hadza and Khoisan. In Schladt, Matthias (ed.) ''Language, Identity, and Conceptualization among the Khoisan'' (Quellen zur Khoisan-Forschung Vol. 15), Cologne: Rüdiger Köppe, 265–283.
* ———— (2013). Phonetics and phonology: Hadza; Tonology: Hadza; Morphology: Hadza; Syntax: Hadza. In Rainer Vossen, ed., ''The Khoesan Languages''. Oxford: Routledge.
*Sergei Starostin. [http://starling.rinet.ru/cgi-bin/response.cgi?root=new100&morpho=0&basename=new100\hdz\hdz&limit=-1 Hadza basic lexicon.] Global Lexicostatistical Database. [much of the parsing is speculation, and Bleek's posthumous data is unreliable]
* A.N. Tucker, M.A. Bryan & James Woodburn as co-author for Hadza (1977). The East African Click Languages: A Phonetic Comparison. In J.G. Moehlig, Franz Rottland, Bernd Heine, eds, ''Zur Sprachgeschichte und Ethnohistorie in Afrika.'' Berlin: Dietrich Diener.

[[Category:En]]
[[Category:Single language]]

Hadza

2019-03-05T23:14:51Z

Kirk Miller: /* Consonants */

{{InfoboxLanguage
|Language = Hadza
|Autonym = ''Haza, hazane''
|Pronunciation = ɦad͜za
|Ethn15name = Hadza
|Countries = Tanzania
|OfficialLg = none
|OLACname = Hadza
|WALSLoc = 3°45′ S, 35°10′ E
|Speakers = 1,000
|Family = [[isolate]]
|Genus = Hadza
|WritingSyst = none
|ISO3 = hts
}}

Hadza is a language isolate of Tanzania.

=== Location and Speakers ===
Hadza is spoken along the entire eastern shore of alkaline Lake Eyasi, which lies at the base of the Serengeti Plateau in Tanzania, from Mount Oldeani in the north to the Isanzu agricultural areas in the south.

There is a small population of Hadza to the west of the lake, in ''Dunduina'' /duƞtuina/<ref>This article uses the old IPA letter for a moraic nasal, ⟨ƞ⟩, which was retired because it has no specific phonetic value. In Hadza, the moraic nasal is homorganic with a following consonant.</ref> 'Sukumaland', but their number seems to be decreasing and many only speak Sukuma and Swahili.

There are approximately 1,000 speakers of Hadza, most now bilingual in Swahili. Other second languages include [[Isanzu]] in the south, [[Sukuma]] in the west, and to a lesser degree [[Datooga]] in the center (e.g. near the Yaeda Valley) and [[Iraqw]] on the margins of Iraqw territory. The northern Hadza area, around the town of Mangola, was largely monolingual until the introduction of Standard Swahili after independence.

As of 2005, about 40% of Hadza lived as full-time hunter-gatherers, and language transmission was robust in the areas east of the lake, but since then there have been reports of children speaking Swahili east of the lake, perhaps due to the influx of ''Dunduinabee'' abandoning their territory in the west.

=== Classification ===
Hadza is a [[language isolate]]. Greenberg classified it as [[Khoisan]] due to its use of [[click consonant]]s. If it were not for the clicks, it's likely that Hadza would have been classified as [[Cushitic]].

=== Dialects ===
There do not appear to be any dialects of Hadza, presumably due to the mobility of its speakers. There are some regional differences of vocabulary, however, and speakers note that there are many more Bantu loans in the south.

=== Name ===
"Hadza" is the most common name in the literature. ''Haza'' /ɦad͜za/ simply means 'human being'. The derivative "Hadzane" (/ɦad͜zane/ 'in the manner of the people') is sometimes encountered as the name of the language. The feminine plural ''hazabee'' /ɦad͜zabeʔe/ may be used for the people, though it is usually spelled "Hadzabe" due to devoicing of the final vowel. (The feminine is the inclusive gender in the plural.) "Hadzapi" is the masculine copular form ''hazaphii'' /ɦad͜zapʰiʔi/. "Hatza" and "Hatsa" are older German spellings.

"Tindiga" is from the Swahili name, ''watindiga'' 'people of the marsh grass', presumably named for the large spring in Mangola. The form ''wahadza'', ''kihadza'' is found instead of ''watindiga'', ''kitindiga'' in recent Swahili publications, but the Hadza do not consider ''watindiga'' to be pejorative. "Kindiga" may be a cognate from one of the local Bantu languages. "Kangeju" (pronounced ''Kangeyu'') is an obsolete German name of unclear origin. The name "Wahi" (pronounced ''Vahi'') found in Kohl-Larsen is a Sukuma name for the Hadza.

=== Orthography ===
Hadza does not have a written tradition. Two orthographies have seen recent use: the phonetic transcription of Tucker, Bryan & Woodburn (1977), used with some modification by Woodburn and other anthropologists, and the practical orthography of Anyawire et al. (2013). As it is based on the IPA, the Woodburn transcription is more accessible to linguists, while the Anyawire orthography is closer to those of Sandawe and other written languages of Tanzania. There is evidently some political controversy over the choice of orthography, with Hadza reporting they have been told that if they use the Anyawire orthography they will loose their land. There are two motivations for the Anyawire orthography: the perception that the IPA click letters of the Woodburn transcription portray the Hadza language as bizarre, when the Hadza people already have difficulties with being marginalized and a perception that they are not proper human beings, and the practical issue that the ubiquitous apostrophe of the Woodburn transcription makes it impractical for extended use. The apostrophes are generally omitted by those Hadza who have learned it, with the resulting texts often being unintelligible even to their authors; when the apostrophes are written, they greatly slow down the pace of writing. In the Anyawire orthography, doubled consonants and vowels are used for glottalized/ejective consonants and glottal stop, with the apostrophe only being used for the Swahili convention of ⟨ngʼ⟩ for /ŋ/.

The Anyawire orthography is used alongside the IPA in this article for accessibility with the dictionary. For clarity, an apostrophe will be retained for glottal stop between unlike vowels, for e.g. ''ae'' /ae/ vs ''aʼe'' /aʔe/. In practice, the Hadza are more likely to use epenthetic glides between vowels in hiatus, for e.g. ''aye'' /ae/ and ''ae'' /aʔe/.

=== Phonology ===
Hadza syllable structure is limited to CVN in native words. There are no vowel-initial roots, unless ''h'' is analyzed as an allophone of zero. Syllable-coda N surfaces as a homorganic nasal when a following consonant has a place of articulation to assimilate to, and as nasalization of the vowel before a glottal consonant (glottal stop and ''h''/zero) and pre-pausa. Coda N appears allophonically before voiced or glottalized nasal clicks. A moraic (syllabic?) nasal is also found word-initially in loans, where it may have a different pitch than the following vowel; such nasals are analyzed as NCV sequences rather than as a series of prenasalized consonants. Initial NCV may also occur when the initial hV syllable of an hVCV- word is elided and the C2 is a glottalized nasal click.

==== Stress and tone ====
Salient stress and pitch is not restricted to a particular syllable. There are no known minimal pairs, grammatical or lexical, for stress or tone. Pairs claimed in the literature have turned out to either not be distinct or not be minimal pairs. It may be that some loanwords retain their tone from their source language.

==== Vowels ====
There are five phonemic vowels, which are close to cardinal [a e i o u].

{| class="wikitable" style=text-align:center
|+Hadza vowels
| style="background: white" |
! Front
! Central
! Back
|-
! High
| i || || u
|-
! Mid
| e || || o
|-
! Low
| || a ||
|}

Phonetic nasal vowels, which are not common except before a consonant, are here analyzed as /VN/.

Phonetic long vowels are often sequences, as in ''kaha'' [kaː] ~ [kaɦa] 'to climb'. In some words, however, there is no allomorph with [ɦ], as in ''bôko'' [boːko] 'she' (forms a minimal pair with ''boko'' [boko] 'to be ill'). There is no known minimal set to establish long /Vː/ as distinct from a /VV/ sequence.

The mid vowels /e, o/ tend to rise when a high vowel, /i, u/, occurs in the following syllable, and may merge with /i, u/ in that position. However, such assimilation tends to be optional, even in suffixed pronouns such as ''onebii'' [ʔone̝biʔi] ~ ''unibii'' [ʔunibiʔi] 'we' (masculine, inclusive).

/u/ is relatively uncommon except in loans or due to vowel-height assimilation, and does not occur in grammatical morphemes unless the morpheme has a second syllable with vowel /i/.

Vowels tend to devoice pre-pausa and after a voiceless consonant. In the highly frequent pattern of word-final -V₁ʔV₁ (where the two vowels are the same, found in half of all grammatical suffixes and clitics though not frequently elsewhere), the vowel and preceding glottal stop tend to elide completely, whether pre-pausa or before another word.

==== Consonants ====
Hadza has at least 50 productive syllable onsets and several more marginal consonants.

{| class="wikitable" style=text-align:center
|+Principal Hadza consonants (Parentheses: loans. Dark background: may follow a nasal coda.)
! rowspan=2 colspan=2 |
! rowspan=2 | Labial
! rowspan=2 colspan=2 | (Denti-) alveolar
! rowspan=2 | (Post-) alveolar
! rowspan=2 | Palatal
! colspan=2 | Post-velar
! rowspan=2 | Glottal/ placeless
|- class=small
! plain
! labialized
|-
! rowspan=4 | Click
! Aspirated
|
| colspan=2 style="background: silver" | ǀʰ
| style="background: silver" |ǃʰ
| style="background: LightGray" |ǁʰ
| colspan=3 rowspan=4 style="background: white" |
|-
! Tenuis
|
| colspan=2 style="background: silver" | ǀ
| style="background: Gainsboro" |ǃ
| style="background: Gainsboro" |ǁ
|-
! Voiced nasal
|
| colspan=2 | ⁿǀ
| ⁿǃ
| ⁿǁ
|-
! Glottalized nasal
|
| colspan=2 | ⁿǀˀ
| ⁿǃˀ
| ⁿǁˀ
|-
! rowspan=5 | Plosive / affricate
|-
! Ejective
| pʼ
| colspan=2| t͜sʼ
| t͜ʃʼ
| c͜ʎ̥˔ʼ
| k͜xʼ
| k͜xʷʼ
| style="background: white" |
|-
! Aspirated
| style="background: silver" |pʰ
| style="background: silver" |tʰ
| style="background: silver" |t͜sʰ
| style="background: silver" |t͜ʃʰ
| c͜ʎ̥˔ʰ
| style="background: silver" |kʰ
| style="background: silver" |kʷʰ
|
|-
! Tenuis
| style="background: silver" |p
| style="background: silver" |t
| style="background: silver" |t͜s
| style="background: silver" |t͜ʃ
| c͜ʎ̥˔
| style="background: silver" |k
| style="background: silver" |kʷ
| style="background: silver" |ʔ
|-
! Voiced
| b
| (d)
| (d͜z)
| (d͜ʒ)
|
| (ɡ)
| (ɡʷ)
| style="background: white" |
|-
! colspan=2| Nasal
| m
| colspan=2| n
| colspan=2| (ɲ)
| (ŋ)
| (ŋʷ)
| //ƞ//
|-
! colspan=2 | Fricative
| (fʷ)
| ɬ
| s
| ʃ
|
|
|
|
|-
! colspan=2 | Sonorant
|
| colspan=2 | ɺ
|
| j
|
| w
| style="background: silver" | ɦ (zero?)
|}

Consonants in parentheses are thought to be loans, though the voiced obstruents at least are well-integrated and may be spreading to native roots.

Consonants with a grey background may follow a coda nasal. (That is, they may be C2 in a CVNCV pattern.) /ǃ/ and /ǁ/ (lighter grey) are not attested in this position, but it is suspected these are accidental gaps, given that only two roots are known with /ǀ/ after a nasal and that the gaps have not yet been investigated in the field. However, the only known case of /ƞǁʰ/, though clear when elicited, needs to be confirmed with additional speakers, so it's possible the constraint against laterals after a nasal coda extends to clicks.

The voice-onset time of consonants is reduced after a nasal coda: tenuis consonants may be partially or completely voiced, and the aspiration of aspirated consonants may be reduced or lost. This is true of clicks as well as of plosives and affricates. A /b/~/p/ distinction has not been found in this position despite /b/ being native.

Aspirated consonants may only be distinct in the first several syllables of a word. Many speakers distinguish aspirated plosives in only a few words, but maintain a robust distinction for affricates and clicks. The reason for this asymmetry is unknown.

The glottalized nasal clicks surface as e.g. [ǃʔ] post-pausa and often [ŋ͡nʔǃ] intervocalically. Accounts differ as to whether there is voiceless nasal airflow in post-pausa position.

Aspirated clicks may have a delayed and clearly audible posterior release, e.g. [ǃʰ] ~ [ǃkʰ]. This release has the same post-velar articulation as the k-series of plosives.

The ǃ-clicks tend to be weakly articulated, though, so far as is known, not slapped as has been reported from Sandawe. When intervocalic, /ⁿǃ/ may surface as or nearly as [ŋ͡n]. The ǁ-clicks, on the other hand, are typically quite salient.

Among the ejectives, /pʼ/ is uncommon. Many vary between affricate and fricative realizations. [sʼ, ʃʼ, xʼ, xʷʼ] have been noted. /k͜xʼ/ and /k͜xʷʼ/ have plosive allophones [kʼ, kʷʼ], and at least /k͜xʼ/ has a lateral allophone [k͜ʟ̝̊ʼ]. /t͜sʼ/ may be the ejective correlate of both the /t/ and /t͜s/ series of pulmonic consonants.

The palatal lateral affricates may be pronounced with an alveolar onset, e.g. [t͜ʎ̥˔], or without involving the front of the tongue, e.g. [c͜ʎ̥˔]. Speakers express no preference when hearing these articulations. The fricative /ɬ/ is alveolar; a palatal articulation is not accepted. Given that the fricative may be pronounced as an affricate in some prosodic situations, this means that there is a three-way phonetic place contrast among laterals: [t͜ɬ] vs [t͜ʎ̥˔ ~ c͜ʎ̥˔] and [t͜ʎ̥˔ʼ ~ c͜ʎ̥˔ʼ] vs [k͜ʟ̝̊ʼ].

/ɺ/ is typically realized as [l] post-pausa and [ɾ] elsewhere, though [ɺ] is not uncommon. It also tends toward [l] when it occurs as both C1 and C2, as in /ɺoɺa/ (sp. rabbit).

[ɦ] and zero may be allophones. If so, and given that vowel-initial suffixes may elide a stem-final vowel, it would be simplest to posit that the phoneme is zero and [ɦ] an allophone of zero, rather than that /ɦ/ is elided under some conditions. A predictive conditioning environment for the presence or absence of [ɦ] has not been discovered, but prosody may play a role; even vowel-initial suffixes and clitics may be realized with an initial [ɦ] when given contrastive prosody. Assimilation or bilingualism may be involved in the case of loanwords. For instance, an Isanzu loan for 'snake' was recorded as ''ihato'' /ʔiɦato/ at the beginning of the 20th century (and perhaps in an Isanzu-biligual area) but as ''iyato'' /ʔiato/ at the beginning of the 21st century in Mangola.

The glides /j/ and /w/ are not distinctive next to front (/i, e/) and back (/o, u/) vowels, respectively. It is possible that they are allophones of /i/ and /u/. When they occur word-initially, purported /jV, wV/ often appear as [ʔijV] and [ʔuwV]. This is true even of a ubiquitous sequential auxiliary (''yamo'' [jamo] ~ ''iamo'' [ʔiamo] in the 3msg posterior (past?) tense). /j/ does however occur in two object suffixes where such variation has not been noted. In the anthropological and linguistic literature, glides are often written between unlike vowels. For example, the 3msg non-past copula clitic ''-ha'' /ɦa/ is often transcribed 'ya' after a front vowel and 'wa' after a back vowel.

===== Marginal consonants =====

A labial click, variously reported as [ⁿʘʷ] or [ⁿʘˀ], is found in a single root, ''mcwa-'', that is mimetic for a kiss and often made with an accompanying kiss to the hand. ''Mcwa-'' may be allomorphic with ''ncuwa-'' /ⁿǀua/ with a dental click.

A trill [r] is used by some speakers in some words, such as ''karro'' /karo/ (hunting/sighting name for a female giraffe), perhaps reflecting the pronunciation of the word in the language it was borrowed from. It is replaced with /ɺ/ (''karo'' /kaɺo/) by other speakers.

An implosive [ɓ] is used by some speakers in some words, perhaps reflecting the pronunciation of the word in the source language, though in some instances it might co-occur with ejectives, which would be difficult to explain away as a loan (e.g. ''beggawuko'' /bekx’auko/ 'elephant', apparently [ɓekx’auko] in some recordings). It is replaced with /b/ by other speakers. Other implosives have not been noted.

A fricative [x] occurs lexicalized in an expletive, ''ahho'' [ʔaxo], where otherwise the root is ''akho'' /ʔakʰo/ 'genitals'. (/kʰ/ is commonly realized as [kx].)

Word-initial /mu/ and occasionally /mo/ are optionally realized as syllabic [m̩], for example in the common greeting ''mutana'' ~ ''mtana''. This is a Bantu alternation.

/v/ may occasionally be found in loans, as in mimetic ''vûvuko'' ~ ''fûfuko'' /vuːvuko ~ fuːfuko/ 'propeller toy', though it is normally replaced with /f/. [v] (or perhaps [β]) has been reported for /b/, for example in Bleek's transcriptions of the plural suffixes ''-bee'' and ''-bii'' as 've' and 'vi'.

===== Phonotactics =====
All clicks within a root must be the same, as in /ǀikiɺiƞǀa/ 'pinkie'. Although there is a tendency for clicks and ejectives to occur as C1, in a quarter of click words the click occurs as C2.

Clicks and ejectives may co-occur, but always in that order. When they co-occur, there appears to be some sibilant harmony, with a strong tendency for /t͜sʼ/ to occur with denti-alveolar clicks and for /c͜ʎ̥˔ʼ/ to occur with lateral clicks.

When an aspirated consonant occurs more than once in a word, the first tends to deaspirate (Grassmann's/Katupha's Law, though generally optional). A coda N may block deaspiration, as in the allomorphs /peǃeǃʰe/ ~ /peƞǃʰeƞǃʰe/ 'to rush'. NC sequences may loose their nasal segment as well, as in /ƞtʰaɺaƞtʰaɺaʔabiʔi/ ~ /taɺaƞtʰaɺaʔabiʔi/ '(arrow) barbs'. It is not clear to what extent these patterns hold with two different aspirated consonants.

===Swadesh lists===
Only roots are given. For example, the word for 'name', given as the root ''akhana'' below, is actually feminine plural ''akhanabee''.

====Wichmann & Holman basic 40-word list (ordered by stability)====

#louse ''ccamazzi'' /ⁿǀˀamat͜sʼi/<ref>cf. ''ccezze'' /ⁿǀˀet͜s’e/ 'tick'</ref>
#two ''piye'' /pie/, ''konxa'' /koⁿǁa/ (verb)
#water ''ati'' /ʔati/ (mpl; msg = 'rain, river')
#ear ''hajjapitchi'' /ɦat͜ʃ’apit͜ʃʰi/<ref>from ''hazzape'' /ɦat͜s’ape/ 'leaf'?</ref>
#to die ''taxxi'' /taⁿǁˀi/, ''misi'' /misi/ (Datooga?)
#I *one /ʔone/, */-ko/<ref>If *-ko-a > /-kʷa/ rather than *-kʷa-ʔV > /-koʔo/.</ref>
#liver ''xxe'' /ⁿǁˀe/
#eye ''akhwa'' /ʔakʷʰa/
#hand, arm ''ukhwa'' /ʔukʷʰa/
#hear ''nxaʼe'' /ⁿǁaʔe/
#tree ''zziti'' /t͜s’iti/
#fish ''ccama'' /ⁿǀˀama/, ''ccara'' /ⁿǀˀaɺa/
#name ''akhana'' /ʔakʰana/
#stone ''haqqa'' /ɦaⁿǃˀa/
#tooth ''aha'' /ʔaɦa/
#breast ''iriba'' /ʔiɺiba/ ('breasts, milk'. Cushitic); ''ggazza'' /k͜x’at͜s’a/ ('flesh at sternum')
#thou ''the'' /tʰe/, /-en-/ (m), /-n-/ (f)
#path ''yeke'' /jeke/
#bone ''midla'' /mic͜ʎ̥˔’a/ (cf. Dahalo)
#tongue ''ncata'' /ⁿǀata/
#skin ''ahu'' /ʔaɦu/
#night ''zzifi'' /t͜s’ifi/ (m; f = 'day')
#leaf ''hazzape'' /ɦat͜s’ape/
#rain = 'water' (msg = 'rain, river'; mpl = 'water')
#kill ''xô'' /ǁoː/
#blood ''athama'' /ʔatʰama/
#horn ''roo'' /ɺoʔo/
#person ''haza'' /ɦad͜za/ (human), ''unu'' /ʔunu/ (person)
#knee ''guringuri'' /ɡuɺiƞɡuɺi/ ~ ''gurunguri'' /ɡuɺuƞɡuɺi/ (Cushitic? pan-African)
#one ''itchâme'' /ʔit͜ʃʰaːme/
#nose ''intawe'' /ʔiƞtʰawe/
#full ''ggaʼe'' /k͜x’aʔe/, *cco- /ⁿǀˀo-/
#come ''za'' /d͜za/ (Bantu), ''botco'' /bot͜ʃo/ (stem of imperative)
#star ''ntsa'' /ƞt͜sʰa/, ''sa'' /sa/ (Cushitic?)<ref>Anyawire et al. (2013) only found ''ntsa''. Tucker et al. (1977) report ''sa'' 'star', and Woodburn confirms the form he knows does not have a nasal onset. /ƞ/ + /sa/ would generate /ƞt͜sʰa/. Indeed, speakers do not care if the latter is written ''ntsa'' or ''nsa''. There are several Cushitic loanwords that have an onset that varies as C ~ NC in Hadza where the source language is only reconstructed with C.</ref>
#mountain ''xxudle'' /ⁿǁˀuc͜ʎ̥˔’e/
#fire ''zzoko'' /t͜s’oko/
#we (exclusive) ''ô'' /ʔoː/, /-j-/
#to drink ''fa'' /fʷa/
#to see ''chî'' /ǀʰiː/ ~ ''cî'' /ǀiː/
#bark ''heggwa'' /ɦek͜xʷ’a/
#new ''zana'' /d͜zana/<ref>from ''za'' 'come'?</ref>
#dog ''xhaano'' /ǁʰaʔano/, ''tîngi'' /tiːƞki/
#sun ''isho'' /ʔiʃo/

====Other Swadesh-100 words====

===Notes===
<references/>

===Bibliography===

* Mariamu Anyawire, G.G. Bala, Kirk Miller & Bonny Sands (2013). ''A Hadza Lexicon'' (ms). Kirk Miller, ed.
* Roger Blench (2008). [https://web.archive.org/web/20110721180216/http://www.rogerblench.info/Language%20data/Khoesan/Blench%20paper%20Riezlern%202008.pdf Hadza Animal Names.] Paper presented at the 3rd International Symposium on Khoisan Languages and Linguistics, Riezlern, 7–9 July 2008.
* Niklas Edenmyr (2004). [https://web.archive.org/web/20070706040409/http://www.african.gu.se/aa/pdfs/aa04003.pdf The semantics of Hadza gender assignment: a few notes from the field.] ''Africa & Asia'', no. 4, Department of Oriental and African languages, Göteborg University, 3–19.
* Edward Elderkin (1978). Loans in Hadza: internal evidence from consonants. ''Occasional Papers'' 3, Dar es Salaam.
* Peter Ladefoged, Ian Maddieson & Bonny Sands, Bonny (1991). [http://archive.phonetics.ucla.edu/Language/HTS/hts.html Hadza wordlist and sound files]. UCLA Phonetics Lab Archive.
* ———— (1993). [https://www.academia.edu/17743030/The_phonetic_structures_of_Hadza The Phonetic Structures of Hadza.] In [http://repositories.cdlib.org/uclaling/wpp/No84/ ''UCLA Working Papers in Phonetics'' No. 84: ''Fieldwork Studies in Targeted Languages'',] 67–87.
* Kirk Miller (2008). [https://www.academia.edu/36533859/Hadza_grammar_notes Hadza Grammar Notes.] Paper presented at the 3rd International Symposium on Khoisan Languages and Linguistics, Riezlern, 7–9 July 2008.
* ———— (2009). [https://www.academia.edu/36533860/Highlights_of_Hadza_Fieldwork Highlights of Hadza fieldwork.] Paper presented at the 83rd Annual Meeting of the Linguistic Society of America, San Francisco, 8–11 January 2009.
* Bonny Sands (1998). The Linguistic Relationship between Hadza and Khoisan. In Schladt, Matthias (ed.) ''Language, Identity, and Conceptualization among the Khoisan'' (Quellen zur Khoisan-Forschung Vol. 15), Köln: Rüdiger Köppe, 265–283.
* ———— (2013). Phonetics and phonology: Hadza; Tonology: Hadza; Morphology: Hadza; Syntax: Hadza. In Rainer Vossen, ed., ''The Khoesan Languages''. Oxford: Routledge.
*Sergei Starostin. [http://starling.rinet.ru/cgi-bin/response.cgi?root=new100&morpho=0&basename=new100\hdz\hdz&limit=-1 Hadza basic lexicon.] Global Lexicostatistical Database. [much of the parsing is speculation, and Bleek's posthumous data is unreliable]
* A.N. Tucker, M.A. Bryan & James Woodburn as co-author for Hadza (1977). The East African Click Languages: A Phonetic Comparison. In J.G. Moehlig, Franz Rottland, Bernd Heine, eds, ''Zur Sprachgeschichte und Ethnohistorie in Afrika.'' Berlin: Dietrich Diener Verlag.

[[Category:En]]
[[Category:Single language]]

Hadza

2019-03-05T23:09:14Z

Kirk Miller: /* Consonants */

{{InfoboxLanguage
|Language = Hadza
|Autonym = ''Haza, hazane''
|Pronunciation = ɦad͜za
|Ethn15name = Hadza
|Countries = Tanzania
|OfficialLg = none
|OLACname = Hadza
|WALSLoc = 3°45′ S, 35°10′ E
|Speakers = 1,000
|Family = [[isolate]]
|Genus = Hadza
|WritingSyst = none
|ISO3 = hts
}}

Hadza is a language isolate of Tanzania.

=== Location and Speakers ===
Hadza is spoken along the entire eastern shore of alkaline Lake Eyasi, which lies at the base of the Serengeti Plateau in Tanzania, from Mount Oldeani in the north to the Isanzu agricultural areas in the south.

There is a small population of Hadza to the west of the lake, in ''Dunduina'' /duƞtuina/<ref>This article uses the old IPA letter for a moraic nasal, ⟨ƞ⟩, which was retired because it has no specific phonetic value. In Hadza, the moraic nasal is homorganic with a following consonant.</ref> 'Sukumaland', but their number seems to be decreasing and many only speak Sukuma and Swahili.

There are approximately 1,000 speakers of Hadza, most now bilingual in Swahili. Other second languages include [[Isanzu]] in the south, [[Sukuma]] in the west, and to a lesser degree [[Datooga]] in the center (e.g. near the Yaeda Valley) and [[Iraqw]] on the margins of Iraqw territory. The northern Hadza area, around the town of Mangola, was largely monolingual until the introduction of Standard Swahili after independence.

As of 2005, about 40% of Hadza lived as full-time hunter-gatherers, and language transmission was robust in the areas east of the lake, but since then there have been reports of children speaking Swahili east of the lake, perhaps due to the influx of ''Dunduinabee'' abandoning their territory in the west.

=== Classification ===
Hadza is a [[language isolate]]. Greenberg classified it as [[Khoisan]] due to its use of [[click consonant]]s. If it were not for the clicks, it's likely that Hadza would have been classified as [[Cushitic]].

=== Dialects ===
There do not appear to be any dialects of Hadza, presumably due to the mobility of its speakers. There are some regional differences of vocabulary, however, and speakers note that there are many more Bantu loans in the south.

=== Name ===
"Hadza" is the most common name in the literature. ''Haza'' /ɦad͜za/ simply means 'human being'. The derivative "Hadzane" (/ɦad͜zane/ 'in the manner of the people') is sometimes encountered as the name of the language. The feminine plural ''hazabee'' /ɦad͜zabeʔe/ may be used for the people, though it is usually spelled "Hadzabe" due to devoicing of the final vowel. (The feminine is the inclusive gender in the plural.) "Hadzapi" is the masculine copular form ''hazaphii'' /ɦad͜zapʰiʔi/. "Hatza" and "Hatsa" are older German spellings.

"Tindiga" is from the Swahili name, ''watindiga'' 'people of the marsh grass', presumably named for the large spring in Mangola. The form ''wahadza'', ''kihadza'' is found instead of ''watindiga'', ''kitindiga'' in recent Swahili publications, but the Hadza do not consider ''watindiga'' to be pejorative. "Kindiga" may be a cognate from one of the local Bantu languages. "Kangeju" (pronounced ''Kangeyu'') is an obsolete German name of unclear origin. The name "Wahi" (pronounced ''Vahi'') found in Kohl-Larsen is a Sukuma name for the Hadza.

=== Orthography ===
Hadza does not have a written tradition. Two orthographies have seen recent use: the phonetic transcription of Tucker, Bryan & Woodburn (1977), used with some modification by Woodburn and other anthropologists, and the practical orthography of Anyawire et al. (2013). As it is based on the IPA, the Woodburn transcription is more accessible to linguists, while the Anyawire orthography is closer to those of Sandawe and other written languages of Tanzania. There is evidently some political controversy over the choice of orthography, with Hadza reporting they have been told that if they use the Anyawire orthography they will loose their land. There are two motivations for the Anyawire orthography: the perception that the IPA click letters of the Woodburn transcription portray the Hadza language as bizarre, when the Hadza people already have difficulties with being marginalized and a perception that they are not proper human beings, and the practical issue that the ubiquitous apostrophe of the Woodburn transcription makes it impractical for extended use. The apostrophes are generally omitted by those Hadza who have learned it, with the resulting texts often being unintelligible even to their authors; when the apostrophes are written, they greatly slow down the pace of writing. In the Anyawire orthography, doubled consonants and vowels are used for glottalized/ejective consonants and glottal stop, with the apostrophe only being used for the Swahili convention of ⟨ngʼ⟩ for /ŋ/.

The Anyawire orthography is used alongside the IPA in this article for accessibility with the dictionary. For clarity, an apostrophe will be retained for glottal stop between unlike vowels, for e.g. ''ae'' /ae/ vs ''aʼe'' /aʔe/. In practice, the Hadza are more likely to use epenthetic glides between vowels in hiatus, for e.g. ''aye'' /ae/ and ''ae'' /aʔe/.

=== Phonology ===
Hadza syllable structure is limited to CVN in native words. There are no vowel-initial roots, unless ''h'' is analyzed as an allophone of zero. Syllable-coda N surfaces as a homorganic nasal when a following consonant has a place of articulation to assimilate to, and as nasalization of the vowel before a glottal consonant (glottal stop and ''h''/zero) and pre-pausa. Coda N appears allophonically before voiced or glottalized nasal clicks. A moraic (syllabic?) nasal is also found word-initially in loans, where it may have a different pitch than the following vowel; such nasals are analyzed as NCV sequences rather than as a series of prenasalized consonants. Initial NCV may also occur when the initial hV syllable of an hVCV- word is elided and the C2 is a glottalized nasal click.

==== Stress and tone ====
Salient stress and pitch is not restricted to a particular syllable. There are no known minimal pairs, grammatical or lexical, for stress or tone. Pairs claimed in the literature have turned out to either not be distinct or not be minimal pairs. It may be that some loanwords retain their tone from their source language.

==== Vowels ====
There are five phonemic vowels, which are close to cardinal [a e i o u].

{| class="wikitable" style=text-align:center
|+Hadza vowels
| style="background: white" |
! Front
! Central
! Back
|-
! High
| i || || u
|-
! Mid
| e || || o
|-
! Low
| || a ||
|}

Phonetic nasal vowels, which are not common except before a consonant, are here analyzed as /VN/.

Phonetic long vowels are often sequences, as in ''kaha'' [kaː] ~ [kaɦa] 'to climb'. In some words, however, there is no allomorph with [ɦ], as in ''bôko'' [boːko] 'she' (forms a minimal pair with ''boko'' [boko] 'to be ill'). There is no known minimal set to establish long /Vː/ as distinct from a /VV/ sequence.

The mid vowels /e, o/ tend to rise when a high vowel, /i, u/, occurs in the following syllable, and may merge with /i, u/ in that position. However, such assimilation tends to be optional, even in suffixed pronouns such as ''onebii'' [ʔone̝biʔi] ~ ''unibii'' [ʔunibiʔi] 'we' (masculine, inclusive).

/u/ is relatively uncommon except in loans or due to vowel-height assimilation, and does not occur in grammatical morphemes unless the morpheme has a second syllable with vowel /i/.

Vowels tend to devoice pre-pausa and after a voiceless consonant. In the highly frequent pattern of word-final -V₁ʔV₁ (where the two vowels are the same, found in half of all grammatical suffixes and clitics though not frequently elsewhere), the vowel and preceding glottal stop tend to elide completely, whether pre-pausa or before another word.

==== Consonants ====
Hadza has at least 50 productive syllable onsets and several more marginal consonants.

{| class="wikitable" style=text-align:center
|+Principal Hadza consonants (Parentheses: loans. Dark background: may follow a nasal coda.)
! rowspan=2 colspan=2 |
! rowspan=2 | Labial
! rowspan=2 colspan=2 | (Denti-) alveolar
! rowspan=2 | (Post-) alveolar
! rowspan=2 | Palatal
! colspan=2 | Post-velar
! rowspan=2 | Glottal/ placeless
|- class=small
! plain
! labialized
|-
! rowspan=4 | Click
! Aspirated
|
| colspan=2 style="background: silver" | ǀʰ
| style="background: silver" |ǃʰ
| style="background: silver" |ǁʰ
| colspan=3 rowspan=4 style="background: white" |
|-
! Tenuis
|
| colspan=2 style="background: silver" | ǀ
| style="background: silver" |ǃ
| style="background: silver" |ǁ
|-
! Voiced nasal
|
| colspan=2 | ⁿǀ
| ⁿǃ
| ⁿǁ
|-
! Glottalized nasal
|
| colspan=2 | ⁿǀˀ
| ⁿǃˀ
| ⁿǁˀ
|-
! rowspan=5 | Plosive / affricate
|-
! Ejective
| pʼ
| colspan=2| t͜sʼ
| t͜ʃʼ
| c͜ʎ̥˔ʼ
| k͜xʼ
| k͜xʷʼ
| style="background: white" |
|-
! Aspirated
| style="background: silver" |pʰ
| style="background: silver" |tʰ
| style="background: silver" |t͜sʰ
| style="background: silver" |t͜ʃʰ
| c͜ʎ̥˔ʰ
| style="background: silver" |kʰ
| style="background: silver" |kʷʰ
|
|-
! Tenuis
| style="background: silver" |p
| style="background: silver" |t
| style="background: silver" |t͜s
| style="background: silver" |t͜ʃ
| c͜ʎ̥˔
| style="background: silver" |k
| style="background: silver" |kʷ
| style="background: silver" |ʔ
|-
! Voiced
| b
| (d)
| (d͜z)
| (d͜ʒ)
|
| (ɡ)
| (ɡʷ)
| style="background: white" |
|-
! colspan=2| Nasal
| m
| colspan=2| n
| colspan=2| (ɲ)
| (ŋ)
| (ŋʷ)
| //ƞ//
|-
! colspan=2 | Fricative
| (fʷ)
| ɬ
| s
| ʃ
|
|
|
|
|-
! colspan=2 | Sonorant
|
| colspan=2 | ɺ
|
| j
|
| w
| style="background: silver" | ɦ (zero?)
|}

Consonants in parentheses are thought to be loans, though the voiced obstruents at least are well-integrated and may be spreading to native roots.

Consonants with a grey background may follow a coda nasal. (That is, they may be C2 in a CVNCV pattern.) /ǃ/ and /ǁ/ are not attested in this position, but it is suspected these are accidental gaps, given that only two roots are known with /ǀ/ after a nasal and that the gaps have not yet been investigated in the field. However, the only known case of /ƞǁʰ/, though clear when elicited, needs to be confirmed with additional speakers, so it's possible the constraint against laterals after a nasal coda extends to clicks.

The voice-onset time of consonants is reduced after a nasal coda: tenuis consonants may be partially or completely voiced, and the aspiration of aspirated consonants may be reduced or lost. This is true of clicks as well as of plosives and affricates. A /b/~/p/ distinction has not been found in this position despite /b/ being native.

Aspirated consonants may only be distinct in the first several syllables of a word. Many speakers distinguish aspirated plosives in only a few words, but maintain a robust distinction for affricates and clicks. The reason for this asymmetry is unknown.

The glottalized nasal clicks surface as e.g. [ǃʔ] post-pausa and often [ŋ͡nʔǃ] intervocalically. Accounts differ as to whether there is voiceless nasal airflow in post-pausa position.

Aspirated clicks may have a delayed and clearly audible posterior release, e.g. [ǃʰ] ~ [ǃkʰ]. This release has the same post-velar articulation as the k-series of plosives.

The ǃ-clicks tend to be weakly articulated, though, so far as is known, not slapped as has been reported from Sandawe. When intervocalic, /ⁿǃ/ may surface as or nearly as [ŋ͡n]. The ǁ-clicks, on the other hand, are typically quite salient.

Among the ejectives, /pʼ/ is uncommon. Many vary between affricate and fricative realizations. [sʼ, ʃʼ, xʼ, xʷʼ] have been noted. /k͜xʼ/ and /k͜xʷʼ/ have plosive allophones [kʼ, kʷʼ], and at least /k͜xʼ/ has a lateral allophone [k͜ʟ̝̊ʼ]. /t͜sʼ/ may be the ejective correlate of both the /t/ and /t͜s/ series of pulmonic consonants.

The palatal lateral affricates may be pronounced with an alveolar onset, e.g. [t͜ʎ̥˔], or without involving the front of the tongue, e.g. [c͜ʎ̥˔]. Speakers express no preference when hearing these articulations. The fricative /ɬ/ is alveolar; a palatal articulation is not accepted. Given that the fricative may be pronounced as an affricate in some prosodic situations, this means that there is a three-way phonetic place contrast among laterals: [t͜ɬ] vs [t͜ʎ̥˔ ~ c͜ʎ̥˔] and [t͜ʎ̥˔ʼ ~ c͜ʎ̥˔ʼ] vs [k͜ʟ̝̊ʼ].

/ɺ/ is typically realized as [l] post-pausa and [ɾ] elsewhere, though [ɺ] is not uncommon. It also tends toward [l] when it occurs as both C1 and C2, as in /ɺoɺa/ (sp. rabbit).

[ɦ] and zero may be allophones. If so, and given that vowel-initial suffixes may elide a stem-final vowel, it would be simplest to posit that the phoneme is zero and [ɦ] an allophone of zero, rather than that /ɦ/ is elided under some conditions. A predictive conditioning environment for the presence or absence of [ɦ] has not been discovered, but prosody may play a role; even vowel-initial suffixes and clitics may be realized with an initial [ɦ] when given contrastive prosody. Assimilation or bilingualism may be involved in the case of loanwords. For instance, an Isanzu loan for 'snake' was recorded as ''ihato'' /ʔiɦato/ at the beginning of the 20th century (and perhaps in an Isanzu-biligual area) but as ''iyato'' /ʔiato/ at the beginning of the 21st century in Mangola.

The glides /j/ and /w/ are not distinctive next to front (/i, e/) and back (/o, u/) vowels, respectively. It is possible that they are allophones of /i/ and /u/. When they occur word-initially, purported /jV, wV/ often appear as [ʔijV] and [ʔuwV]. This is true even of a ubiquitous sequential auxiliary (''yamo'' [jamo] ~ ''iamo'' [ʔiamo] in the 3msg posterior (past?) tense). /j/ does however occur in two object suffixes where such variation has not been noted. In the anthropological and linguistic literature, glides are often written between unlike vowels. For example, the 3msg non-past copula clitic ''-ha'' /ɦa/ is often transcribed 'ya' after a front vowel and 'wa' after a back vowel.

===== Marginal consonants =====

A labial click, variously reported as [ⁿʘʷ] or [ⁿʘˀ], is found in a single root, ''mcwa-'', that is mimetic for a kiss and often made with an accompanying kiss to the hand. ''Mcwa-'' may be allomorphic with ''ncuwa-'' /ⁿǀua/ with a dental click.

A trill [r] is used by some speakers in some words, such as ''karro'' /karo/ (hunting/sighting name for a female giraffe), perhaps reflecting the pronunciation of the word in the language it was borrowed from. It is replaced with /ɺ/ (''karo'' /kaɺo/) by other speakers.

An implosive [ɓ] is used by some speakers in some words, perhaps reflecting the pronunciation of the word in the source language, though in some instances it might co-occur with ejectives, which would be difficult to explain away as a loan (e.g. ''beggawuko'' /bekx’auko/ 'elephant', apparently [ɓekx’auko] in some recordings). It is replaced with /b/ by other speakers. Other implosives have not been noted.

A fricative [x] occurs lexicalized in an expletive, ''ahho'' [ʔaxo], where otherwise the root is ''akho'' /ʔakʰo/ 'genitals'. (/kʰ/ is commonly realized as [kx].)

Word-initial /mu/ and occasionally /mo/ are optionally realized as syllabic [m̩], for example in the common greeting ''mutana'' ~ ''mtana''. This is a Bantu alternation.

/v/ may occasionally be found in loans, as in mimetic ''vûvuko'' ~ ''fûfuko'' /vuːvuko ~ fuːfuko/ 'propeller toy', though it is normally replaced with /f/. [v] (or perhaps [β]) has been reported for /b/, for example in Bleek's transcriptions of the plural suffixes ''-bee'' and ''-bii'' as 've' and 'vi'.

===== Phonotactics =====
All clicks within a root must be the same, as in /ǀikiɺiƞǀa/ 'pinkie'. Although there is a tendency for clicks and ejectives to occur as C1, in a quarter of click words the click occurs as C2.

Clicks and ejectives may co-occur, but always in that order. When they co-occur, there appears to be some sibilant harmony, with a strong tendency for /t͜sʼ/ to occur with denti-alveolar clicks and for /c͜ʎ̥˔ʼ/ to occur with lateral clicks.

When an aspirated consonant occurs more than once in a word, the first tends to deaspirate (Grassmann's/Katupha's Law, though generally optional). A coda N may block deaspiration, as in the allomorphs /peǃeǃʰe/ ~ /peƞǃʰeƞǃʰe/ 'to rush'. NC sequences may loose their nasal segment as well, as in /ƞtʰaɺaƞtʰaɺaʔabiʔi/ ~ /taɺaƞtʰaɺaʔabiʔi/ '(arrow) barbs'. It is not clear to what extent these patterns hold with two different aspirated consonants.

===Swadesh lists===
Only roots are given. For example, the word for 'name', given as the root ''akhana'' below, is actually feminine plural ''akhanabee''.

====Wichmann & Holman basic 40-word list (ordered by stability)====

#louse ''ccamazzi'' /ⁿǀˀamat͜sʼi/<ref>cf. ''ccezze'' /ⁿǀˀet͜s’e/ 'tick'</ref>
#two ''piye'' /pie/, ''konxa'' /koⁿǁa/ (verb)
#water ''ati'' /ʔati/ (mpl; msg = 'rain, river')
#ear ''hajjapitchi'' /ɦat͜ʃ’apit͜ʃʰi/<ref>from ''hazzape'' /ɦat͜s’ape/ 'leaf'?</ref>
#to die ''taxxi'' /taⁿǁˀi/, ''misi'' /misi/ (Datooga?)
#I *one /ʔone/, */-ko/<ref>If *-ko-a > /-kʷa/ rather than *-kʷa-ʔV > /-koʔo/.</ref>
#liver ''xxe'' /ⁿǁˀe/
#eye ''akhwa'' /ʔakʷʰa/
#hand, arm ''ukhwa'' /ʔukʷʰa/
#hear ''nxaʼe'' /ⁿǁaʔe/
#tree ''zziti'' /t͜s’iti/
#fish ''ccama'' /ⁿǀˀama/, ''ccara'' /ⁿǀˀaɺa/
#name ''akhana'' /ʔakʰana/
#stone ''haqqa'' /ɦaⁿǃˀa/
#tooth ''aha'' /ʔaɦa/
#breast ''iriba'' /ʔiɺiba/ ('breasts, milk'. Cushitic); ''ggazza'' /k͜x’at͜s’a/ ('flesh at sternum')
#thou ''the'' /tʰe/, /-en-/ (m), /-n-/ (f)
#path ''yeke'' /jeke/
#bone ''midla'' /mic͜ʎ̥˔’a/ (cf. Dahalo)
#tongue ''ncata'' /ⁿǀata/
#skin ''ahu'' /ʔaɦu/
#night ''zzifi'' /t͜s’ifi/ (m; f = 'day')
#leaf ''hazzape'' /ɦat͜s’ape/
#rain = 'water' (msg = 'rain, river'; mpl = 'water')
#kill ''xô'' /ǁoː/
#blood ''athama'' /ʔatʰama/
#horn ''roo'' /ɺoʔo/
#person ''haza'' /ɦad͜za/ (human), ''unu'' /ʔunu/ (person)
#knee ''guringuri'' /ɡuɺiƞɡuɺi/ ~ ''gurunguri'' /ɡuɺuƞɡuɺi/ (Cushitic? pan-African)
#one ''itchâme'' /ʔit͜ʃʰaːme/
#nose ''intawe'' /ʔiƞtʰawe/
#full ''ggaʼe'' /k͜x’aʔe/, *cco- /ⁿǀˀo-/
#come ''za'' /d͜za/ (Bantu), ''botco'' /bot͜ʃo/ (stem of imperative)
#star ''ntsa'' /ƞt͜sʰa/, ''sa'' /sa/ (Cushitic?)<ref>Anyawire et al. (2013) only found ''ntsa''. Tucker et al. (1977) report ''sa'' 'star', and Woodburn confirms the form he knows does not have a nasal onset. /ƞ/ + /sa/ would generate /ƞt͜sʰa/. Indeed, speakers do not care if the latter is written ''ntsa'' or ''nsa''. There are several Cushitic loanwords that have an onset that varies as C ~ NC in Hadza where the source language is only reconstructed with C.</ref>
#mountain ''xxudle'' /ⁿǁˀuc͜ʎ̥˔’e/
#fire ''zzoko'' /t͜s’oko/
#we (exclusive) ''ô'' /ʔoː/, /-j-/
#to drink ''fa'' /fʷa/
#to see ''chî'' /ǀʰiː/ ~ ''cî'' /ǀiː/
#bark ''heggwa'' /ɦek͜xʷ’a/
#new ''zana'' /d͜zana/<ref>from ''za'' 'come'?</ref>
#dog ''xhaano'' /ǁʰaʔano/, ''tîngi'' /tiːƞki/
#sun ''isho'' /ʔiʃo/

====Other Swadesh-100 words====

===Notes===
<references/>

===Bibliography===

* Mariamu Anyawire, G.G. Bala, Kirk Miller & Bonny Sands (2013). ''A Hadza Lexicon'' (ms). Kirk Miller, ed.
* Roger Blench (2008). [https://web.archive.org/web/20110721180216/http://www.rogerblench.info/Language%20data/Khoesan/Blench%20paper%20Riezlern%202008.pdf Hadza Animal Names.] Paper presented at the 3rd International Symposium on Khoisan Languages and Linguistics, Riezlern, 7–9 July 2008.
* Niklas Edenmyr (2004). [https://web.archive.org/web/20070706040409/http://www.african.gu.se/aa/pdfs/aa04003.pdf The semantics of Hadza gender assignment: a few notes from the field.] ''Africa & Asia'', no. 4, Department of Oriental and African languages, Göteborg University, 3–19.
* Edward Elderkin (1978). Loans in Hadza: internal evidence from consonants. ''Occasional Papers'' 3, Dar es Salaam.
* Peter Ladefoged, Ian Maddieson & Bonny Sands, Bonny (1991). [http://archive.phonetics.ucla.edu/Language/HTS/hts.html Hadza wordlist and sound files]. UCLA Phonetics Lab Archive.
* ———— (1993). [https://www.academia.edu/17743030/The_phonetic_structures_of_Hadza The Phonetic Structures of Hadza.] In [http://repositories.cdlib.org/uclaling/wpp/No84/ ''UCLA Working Papers in Phonetics'' No. 84: ''Fieldwork Studies in Targeted Languages'',] 67–87.
* Kirk Miller (2008). [https://www.academia.edu/36533859/Hadza_grammar_notes Hadza Grammar Notes.] Paper presented at the 3rd International Symposium on Khoisan Languages and Linguistics, Riezlern, 7–9 July 2008.
* ———— (2009). [https://www.academia.edu/36533860/Highlights_of_Hadza_Fieldwork Highlights of Hadza fieldwork.] Paper presented at the 83rd Annual Meeting of the Linguistic Society of America, San Francisco, 8–11 January 2009.
* Bonny Sands (1998). The Linguistic Relationship between Hadza and Khoisan. In Schladt, Matthias (ed.) ''Language, Identity, and Conceptualization among the Khoisan'' (Quellen zur Khoisan-Forschung Vol. 15), Köln: Rüdiger Köppe, 265–283.
* ———— (2013). Phonetics and phonology: Hadza; Tonology: Hadza; Morphology: Hadza; Syntax: Hadza. In Rainer Vossen, ed., ''The Khoesan Languages''. Oxford: Routledge.
*Sergei Starostin. [http://starling.rinet.ru/cgi-bin/response.cgi?root=new100&morpho=0&basename=new100\hdz\hdz&limit=-1 Hadza basic lexicon.] Global Lexicostatistical Database. [much of the parsing is speculation, and Bleek's posthumous data is unreliable]
* A.N. Tucker, M.A. Bryan & James Woodburn as co-author for Hadza (1977). The East African Click Languages: A Phonetic Comparison. In J.G. Moehlig, Franz Rottland, Bernd Heine, eds, ''Zur Sprachgeschichte und Ethnohistorie in Afrika.'' Berlin: Dietrich Diener Verlag.

[[Category:En]]
[[Category:Single language]]

Hadza

2019-03-05T22:57:18Z

Kirk Miller: /* Marginal consonants */

{{InfoboxLanguage
|Language = Hadza
|Autonym = ''Haza, hazane''
|Pronunciation = ɦad͜za
|Ethn15name = Hadza
|Countries = Tanzania
|OfficialLg = none
|OLACname = Hadza
|WALSLoc = 3°45′ S, 35°10′ E
|Speakers = 1,000
|Family = [[isolate]]
|Genus = Hadza
|WritingSyst = none
|ISO3 = hts
}}

Hadza is a language isolate of Tanzania.

=== Location and Speakers ===
Hadza is spoken along the entire eastern shore of alkaline Lake Eyasi, which lies at the base of the Serengeti Plateau in Tanzania, from Mount Oldeani in the north to the Isanzu agricultural areas in the south.

There is a small population of Hadza to the west of the lake, in ''Dunduina'' /duƞtuina/<ref>This article uses the old IPA letter for a moraic nasal, ⟨ƞ⟩, which was retired because it has no specific phonetic value. In Hadza, the moraic nasal is homorganic with a following consonant.</ref> 'Sukumaland', but their number seems to be decreasing and many only speak Sukuma and Swahili.

There are approximately 1,000 speakers of Hadza, most now bilingual in Swahili. Other second languages include [[Isanzu]] in the south, [[Sukuma]] in the west, and to a lesser degree [[Datooga]] in the center (e.g. near the Yaeda Valley) and [[Iraqw]] on the margins of Iraqw territory. The northern Hadza area, around the town of Mangola, was largely monolingual until the introduction of Standard Swahili after independence.

As of 2005, about 40% of Hadza lived as full-time hunter-gatherers, and language transmission was robust in the areas east of the lake, but since then there have been reports of children speaking Swahili east of the lake, perhaps due to the influx of ''Dunduinabee'' abandoning their territory in the west.

=== Classification ===
Hadza is a [[language isolate]]. Greenberg classified it as [[Khoisan]] due to its use of [[click consonant]]s. If it were not for the clicks, it's likely that Hadza would have been classified as [[Cushitic]].

=== Dialects ===
There do not appear to be any dialects of Hadza, presumably due to the mobility of its speakers. There are some regional differences of vocabulary, however, and speakers note that there are many more Bantu loans in the south.

=== Name ===
"Hadza" is the most common name in the literature. ''Haza'' /ɦad͜za/ simply means 'human being'. The derivative "Hadzane" (/ɦad͜zane/ 'in the manner of the people') is sometimes encountered as the name of the language. The feminine plural ''hazabee'' /ɦad͜zabeʔe/ may be used for the people, though it is usually spelled "Hadzabe" due to devoicing of the final vowel. (The feminine is the inclusive gender in the plural.) "Hadzapi" is the masculine copular form ''hazaphii'' /ɦad͜zapʰiʔi/. "Hatza" and "Hatsa" are older German spellings.

"Tindiga" is from the Swahili name, ''watindiga'' 'people of the marsh grass', presumably named for the large spring in Mangola. The form ''wahadza'', ''kihadza'' is found instead of ''watindiga'', ''kitindiga'' in recent Swahili publications, but the Hadza do not consider ''watindiga'' to be pejorative. "Kindiga" may be a cognate from one of the local Bantu languages. "Kangeju" (pronounced ''Kangeyu'') is an obsolete German name of unclear origin. The name "Wahi" (pronounced ''Vahi'') found in Kohl-Larsen is a Sukuma name for the Hadza.

=== Orthography ===
Hadza does not have a written tradition. Two orthographies have seen recent use: the phonetic transcription of Tucker, Bryan & Woodburn (1977), used with some modification by Woodburn and other anthropologists, and the practical orthography of Anyawire et al. (2013). As it is based on the IPA, the Woodburn transcription is more accessible to linguists, while the Anyawire orthography is closer to those of Sandawe and other written languages of Tanzania. There is evidently some political controversy over the choice of orthography, with Hadza reporting they have been told that if they use the Anyawire orthography they will loose their land. There are two motivations for the Anyawire orthography: the perception that the IPA click letters of the Woodburn transcription portray the Hadza language as bizarre, when the Hadza people already have difficulties with being marginalized and a perception that they are not proper human beings, and the practical issue that the ubiquitous apostrophe of the Woodburn transcription makes it impractical for extended use. The apostrophes are generally omitted by those Hadza who have learned it, with the resulting texts often being unintelligible even to their authors; when the apostrophes are written, they greatly slow down the pace of writing. In the Anyawire orthography, doubled consonants and vowels are used for glottalized/ejective consonants and glottal stop, with the apostrophe only being used for the Swahili convention of ⟨ngʼ⟩ for /ŋ/.

The Anyawire orthography is used alongside the IPA in this article for accessibility with the dictionary. For clarity, an apostrophe will be retained for glottal stop between unlike vowels, for e.g. ''ae'' /ae/ vs ''aʼe'' /aʔe/. In practice, the Hadza are more likely to use epenthetic glides between vowels in hiatus, for e.g. ''aye'' /ae/ and ''ae'' /aʔe/.

=== Phonology ===
Hadza syllable structure is limited to CVN in native words. There are no vowel-initial roots, unless ''h'' is analyzed as an allophone of zero. Syllable-coda N surfaces as a homorganic nasal when a following consonant has a place of articulation to assimilate to, and as nasalization of the vowel before a glottal consonant (glottal stop and ''h''/zero) and pre-pausa. Coda N appears allophonically before voiced or glottalized nasal clicks. A moraic (syllabic?) nasal is also found word-initially in loans, where it may have a different pitch than the following vowel; such nasals are analyzed as NCV sequences rather than as a series of prenasalized consonants. Initial NCV may also occur when the initial hV syllable of an hVCV- word is elided and the C2 is a glottalized nasal click.

==== Stress and tone ====
Salient stress and pitch is not restricted to a particular syllable. There are no known minimal pairs, grammatical or lexical, for stress or tone. Pairs claimed in the literature have turned out to either not be distinct or not be minimal pairs. It may be that some loanwords retain their tone from their source language.

==== Vowels ====
There are five phonemic vowels, which are close to cardinal [a e i o u].

{| class="wikitable" style=text-align:center
|+Hadza vowels
| style="background: white" |
! Front
! Central
! Back
|-
! High
| i || || u
|-
! Mid
| e || || o
|-
! Low
| || a ||
|}

Phonetic nasal vowels, which are not common except before a consonant, are here analyzed as /VN/.

Phonetic long vowels are often sequences, as in ''kaha'' [kaː] ~ [kaɦa] 'to climb'. In some words, however, there is no allomorph with [ɦ], as in ''bôko'' [boːko] 'she' (forms a minimal pair with ''boko'' [boko] 'to be ill'). There is no known minimal set to establish long /Vː/ as distinct from a /VV/ sequence.

The mid vowels /e, o/ tend to rise when a high vowel, /i, u/, occurs in the following syllable, and may merge with /i, u/ in that position. However, such assimilation tends to be optional, even in suffixed pronouns such as ''onebii'' [ʔone̝biʔi] ~ ''unibii'' [ʔunibiʔi] 'we' (masculine, inclusive).

/u/ is relatively uncommon except in loans or due to vowel-height assimilation, and does not occur in grammatical morphemes unless the morpheme has a second syllable with vowel /i/.

Vowels tend to devoice pre-pausa and after a voiceless consonant. In the highly frequent pattern of word-final -V₁ʔV₁ (where the two vowels are the same, found in half of all grammatical suffixes and clitics though not frequently elsewhere), the vowel and preceding glottal stop tend to elide completely, whether pre-pausa or before another word.

==== Consonants ====
Hadza has at least 50 productive syllable onsets and several more marginal consonants.

{| class="wikitable" style=text-align:center
|+Principal Hadza consonants (Parentheses: loans. Dark background: may follow a nasal coda.)
! rowspan=2 colspan=2 |
! rowspan=2 | Labial
! rowspan=2 colspan=2 | (Denti-) alveolar
! rowspan=2 | (Post-) alveolar
! rowspan=2 | Palatal
! colspan=2 | Post-velar
! rowspan=2 | Glottal/ placeless
|- class=small
! plain
! labialized
|-
! rowspan=4 | Click
! Aspirated
|
| colspan=2 style="background: silver" | ǀʰ
| style="background: silver" |ǃʰ
| style="background: silver" |ǁʰ
| colspan=3 rowspan=4 style="background: white" |
|-
! Tenuis
|
| colspan=2 style="background: silver" | ǀ
| style="background: silver" |ǃ
| style="background: silver" |ǁ
|-
! Voiced nasal
|
| colspan=2 | ⁿǀ
| ⁿǃ
| ⁿǁ
|-
! Glottalized nasal
|
| colspan=2 | ⁿǀˀ
| ⁿǃˀ
| ⁿǁˀ
|-
! rowspan=5 | Plosive / affricate
|-
! Ejective
| pʼ
| colspan=2| t͜sʼ
| t͜ʃʼ
| c͜ʎ̥˔ʼ
| k͜xʼ
| k͜xʷʼ
| style="background: white" |
|-
! Aspirated
| style="background: silver" |pʰ
| style="background: silver" |tʰ
| style="background: silver" |t͜sʰ
| style="background: silver" |t͜ʃʰ
| c͜ʎ̥˔ʰ
| style="background: silver" |kʰ
| style="background: silver" |kʷʰ
|
|-
! Tenuis
| style="background: silver" |p
| style="background: silver" |t
| style="background: silver" |t͜s
| style="background: silver" |t͜ʃ
| c͜ʎ̥˔
| style="background: silver" |k
| style="background: silver" |kʷ
| style="background: silver" |ʔ
|-
! Voiced
| b
| (d)
| (d͜z)
| (d͜ʒ)
|
| (ɡ)
| (ɡʷ)
| style="background: white" |
|-
! colspan=2| Nasal
| m
| colspan=2| n
| colspan=2| (ɲ)
| (ŋ)
| (ŋʷ)
| //ƞ//
|-
! colspan=2 | Fricative
| (fʷ)
| ɬ
| s
| ʃ
|
|
|
|
|-
! colspan=2 | Sonorant
|
| colspan=2 | ɺ
|
| j
|
| w
| style="background: silver" | ɦ (zero?)
|}

Consonants in parentheses are thought to be loans, though the voiced obstruents at least are well-integrated and may be spreading to native roots.

Consonants with a grey background may follow a coda nasal. (That is, they may be C2 in a CVNCV pattern.) /ǃ/ and /ǁ/ are not attested in this position, but it is suspected these are accidental gaps, given that only two roots are known with /ǀ/ after a nasal and that the gaps have not yet been investigated in the field.

The voice-onset time of consonants is reduced after a nasal coda: tenuis consonants may be partially or completely voiced, and the aspiration of aspirated consonants may be reduced or lost. This is true of clicks as well as of plosives and affricates. A /b/~/p/ distinction has not been found in this position despite /b/ being native.

Aspirated consonants may only be distinct in the first several syllables of a word. Many speakers distinguish aspirated plosives in only a few words, but maintain a robust distinction for affricates and clicks. The reason for this asymmetry is unknown.

The glottalized nasal clicks surface as e.g. [ǃʔ] post-pausa and often [ŋ͡nʔǃ] intervocalically. Accounts differ as to whether there is voiceless nasal airflow in post-pausa position.

Aspirated clicks may have a delayed and clearly audible posterior release, e.g. [ǃʰ] ~ [ǃkʰ]. This release has the same post-velar articulation as the k-series of plosives.

The ǃ-clicks tend to be weakly articulated, though, so far as is known, not slapped as has been reported from Sandawe. When intervocalic, /ⁿǃ/ may surface as or nearly as [ŋ͡n]. The ǁ-clicks, on the other hand, are typically quite salient.

Among the ejectives, /pʼ/ is uncommon. Many vary between affricate and fricative realizations. [sʼ, ʃʼ, xʼ, xʷʼ] have been noted. /k͜xʼ/ and /k͜xʷʼ/ have plosive allophones [kʼ, kʷʼ], and at least /k͜xʼ/ has a lateral allophone [k͜ʟ̝̊ʼ]. /t͜sʼ/ may be the ejective correlate of both the /t/ and /t͜s/ series of pulmonic consonants.

The palatal lateral affricates may be pronounced with an alveolar onset, e.g. [t͜ʎ̥˔], or without involving the front of the tongue, e.g. [c͜ʎ̥˔]. Speakers express no preference when hearing these articulations. The fricative /ɬ/ is alveolar; a palatal articulation is not accepted. Given that the fricative may be pronounced as an affricate in some prosodic situations, this means that there is a three-way phonetic place contrast among laterals: [t͜ɬ] vs [t͜ʎ̥˔ ~ c͜ʎ̥˔] and [t͜ʎ̥˔ʼ ~ c͜ʎ̥˔ʼ] vs [k͜ʟ̝̊ʼ].

/ɺ/ is typically realized as [l] post-pausa and [ɾ] elsewhere, though [ɺ] is not uncommon. It also tends toward [l] when it occurs as both C1 and C2, as in /ɺoɺa/ (sp. rabbit).

[ɦ] and zero may be allophones. If so, and given that vowel-initial suffixes may elide a stem-final vowel, it would be simplest to posit that the phoneme is zero and [ɦ] an allophone of zero, rather than that /ɦ/ is elided under some conditions. A predictive conditioning environment for the presence or absence of [ɦ] has not been discovered, but prosody may play a role; even vowel-initial suffixes and clitics may be realized with an initial [ɦ] when given contrastive prosody. Assimilation or bilingualism may be involved in the case of loanwords. For instance, an Isanzu loan for 'snake' was recorded as ''ihato'' /ʔiɦato/ at the beginning of the 20th century (and perhaps in an Isanzu-biligual area) but as ''iyato'' /ʔiato/ at the beginning of the 21st century in Mangola.

The glides /j/ and /w/ are not distinctive next to front (/i, e/) and back (/o, u/) vowels, respectively. It is possible that they are allophones of /i/ and /u/. When they occur word-initially, purported /jV, wV/ often appear as [ʔijV] and [ʔuwV]. This is true even of a ubiquitous sequential auxiliary (''yamo'' [jamo] ~ ''iamo'' [ʔiamo] in the 3msg posterior (past?) tense). /j/ does however occur in two object suffixes where such variation has not been noted. In the anthropological and linguistic literature, glides are often written between unlike vowels. For example, the 3msg non-past copula clitic ''-ha'' /ɦa/ is often transcribed 'ya' after a front vowel and 'wa' after a back vowel.

===== Marginal consonants =====

A labial click, variously reported as [ⁿʘʷ] or [ⁿʘˀ], is found in a single root, ''mcwa-'', that is mimetic for a kiss and often made with an accompanying kiss to the hand. ''Mcwa-'' may be allomorphic with ''ncuwa-'' /ⁿǀua/ with a dental click.

A trill [r] is used by some speakers in some words, such as ''karro'' /karo/ (hunting/sighting name for a female giraffe), perhaps reflecting the pronunciation of the word in the language it was borrowed from. It is replaced with /ɺ/ (''karo'' /kaɺo/) by other speakers.

An implosive [ɓ] is used by some speakers in some words, perhaps reflecting the pronunciation of the word in the source language, though in some instances it might co-occur with ejectives, which would be difficult to explain away as a loan (e.g. ''beggawuko'' /bekx’auko/ 'elephant', apparently [ɓekx’auko] in some recordings). It is replaced with /b/ by other speakers. Other implosives have not been noted.

A fricative [x] occurs lexicalized in an expletive, ''ahho'' [ʔaxo], where otherwise the root is ''akho'' /ʔakʰo/ 'genitals'. (/kʰ/ is commonly realized as [kx].)

Word-initial /mu/ and occasionally /mo/ are optionally realized as syllabic [m̩], for example in the common greeting ''mutana'' ~ ''mtana''. This is a Bantu alternation.

/v/ may occasionally be found in loans, as in mimetic ''vûvuko'' ~ ''fûfuko'' /vuːvuko ~ fuːfuko/ 'propeller toy', though it is normally replaced with /f/. [v] (or perhaps [β]) has been reported for /b/, for example in Bleek's transcriptions of the plural suffixes ''-bee'' and ''-bii'' as 've' and 'vi'.

===== Phonotactics =====
All clicks within a root must be the same, as in /ǀikiɺiƞǀa/ 'pinkie'. Although there is a tendency for clicks and ejectives to occur as C1, in a quarter of click words the click occurs as C2.

Clicks and ejectives may co-occur, but always in that order. When they co-occur, there appears to be some sibilant harmony, with a strong tendency for /t͜sʼ/ to occur with denti-alveolar clicks and for /c͜ʎ̥˔ʼ/ to occur with lateral clicks.

When an aspirated consonant occurs more than once in a word, the first tends to deaspirate (Grassmann's/Katupha's Law, though generally optional). A coda N may block deaspiration, as in the allomorphs /peǃeǃʰe/ ~ /peƞǃʰeƞǃʰe/ 'to rush'. NC sequences may loose their nasal segment as well, as in /ƞtʰaɺaƞtʰaɺaʔabiʔi/ ~ /taɺaƞtʰaɺaʔabiʔi/ '(arrow) barbs'. It is not clear to what extent these patterns hold with two different aspirated consonants.

===Swadesh lists===
Only roots are given. For example, the word for 'name', given as the root ''akhana'' below, is actually feminine plural ''akhanabee''.

====Wichmann & Holman basic 40-word list (ordered by stability)====

#louse ''ccamazzi'' /ⁿǀˀamat͜sʼi/<ref>cf. ''ccezze'' /ⁿǀˀet͜s’e/ 'tick'</ref>
#two ''piye'' /pie/, ''konxa'' /koⁿǁa/ (verb)
#water ''ati'' /ʔati/ (mpl; msg = 'rain, river')
#ear ''hajjapitchi'' /ɦat͜ʃ’apit͜ʃʰi/<ref>from ''hazzape'' /ɦat͜s’ape/ 'leaf'?</ref>
#to die ''taxxi'' /taⁿǁˀi/, ''misi'' /misi/ (Datooga?)
#I *one /ʔone/, */-ko/<ref>If *-ko-a > /-kʷa/ rather than *-kʷa-ʔV > /-koʔo/.</ref>
#liver ''xxe'' /ⁿǁˀe/
#eye ''akhwa'' /ʔakʷʰa/
#hand, arm ''ukhwa'' /ʔukʷʰa/
#hear ''nxaʼe'' /ⁿǁaʔe/
#tree ''zziti'' /t͜s’iti/
#fish ''ccama'' /ⁿǀˀama/, ''ccara'' /ⁿǀˀaɺa/
#name ''akhana'' /ʔakʰana/
#stone ''haqqa'' /ɦaⁿǃˀa/
#tooth ''aha'' /ʔaɦa/
#breast ''iriba'' /ʔiɺiba/ ('breasts, milk'. Cushitic); ''ggazza'' /k͜x’at͜s’a/ ('flesh at sternum')
#thou ''the'' /tʰe/, /-en-/ (m), /-n-/ (f)
#path ''yeke'' /jeke/
#bone ''midla'' /mic͜ʎ̥˔’a/ (cf. Dahalo)
#tongue ''ncata'' /ⁿǀata/
#skin ''ahu'' /ʔaɦu/
#night ''zzifi'' /t͜s’ifi/ (m; f = 'day')
#leaf ''hazzape'' /ɦat͜s’ape/
#rain = 'water' (msg = 'rain, river'; mpl = 'water')
#kill ''xô'' /ǁoː/
#blood ''athama'' /ʔatʰama/
#horn ''roo'' /ɺoʔo/
#person ''haza'' /ɦad͜za/ (human), ''unu'' /ʔunu/ (person)
#knee ''guringuri'' /ɡuɺiƞɡuɺi/ ~ ''gurunguri'' /ɡuɺuƞɡuɺi/ (Cushitic? pan-African)
#one ''itchâme'' /ʔit͜ʃʰaːme/
#nose ''intawe'' /ʔiƞtʰawe/
#full ''ggaʼe'' /k͜x’aʔe/, *cco- /ⁿǀˀo-/
#come ''za'' /d͜za/ (Bantu), ''botco'' /bot͜ʃo/ (stem of imperative)
#star ''ntsa'' /ƞt͜sʰa/, ''sa'' /sa/ (Cushitic?)<ref>Anyawire et al. (2013) only found ''ntsa''. Tucker et al. (1977) report ''sa'' 'star', and Woodburn confirms the form he knows does not have a nasal onset. /ƞ/ + /sa/ would generate /ƞt͜sʰa/. Indeed, speakers do not care if the latter is written ''ntsa'' or ''nsa''. There are several Cushitic loanwords that have an onset that varies as C ~ NC in Hadza where the source language is only reconstructed with C.</ref>
#mountain ''xxudle'' /ⁿǁˀuc͜ʎ̥˔’e/
#fire ''zzoko'' /t͜s’oko/
#we (exclusive) ''ô'' /ʔoː/, /-j-/
#to drink ''fa'' /fʷa/
#to see ''chî'' /ǀʰiː/ ~ ''cî'' /ǀiː/
#bark ''heggwa'' /ɦek͜xʷ’a/
#new ''zana'' /d͜zana/<ref>from ''za'' 'come'?</ref>
#dog ''xhaano'' /ǁʰaʔano/, ''tîngi'' /tiːƞki/
#sun ''isho'' /ʔiʃo/

====Other Swadesh-100 words====

===Notes===
<references/>

===Bibliography===

* Mariamu Anyawire, G.G. Bala, Kirk Miller & Bonny Sands (2013). ''A Hadza Lexicon'' (ms). Kirk Miller, ed.
* Roger Blench (2008). [https://web.archive.org/web/20110721180216/http://www.rogerblench.info/Language%20data/Khoesan/Blench%20paper%20Riezlern%202008.pdf Hadza Animal Names.] Paper presented at the 3rd International Symposium on Khoisan Languages and Linguistics, Riezlern, 7–9 July 2008.
* Niklas Edenmyr (2004). [https://web.archive.org/web/20070706040409/http://www.african.gu.se/aa/pdfs/aa04003.pdf The semantics of Hadza gender assignment: a few notes from the field.] ''Africa & Asia'', no. 4, Department of Oriental and African languages, Göteborg University, 3–19.
* Edward Elderkin (1978). Loans in Hadza: internal evidence from consonants. ''Occasional Papers'' 3, Dar es Salaam.
* Peter Ladefoged, Ian Maddieson & Bonny Sands, Bonny (1991). [http://archive.phonetics.ucla.edu/Language/HTS/hts.html Hadza wordlist and sound files]. UCLA Phonetics Lab Archive.
* ———— (1993). [https://www.academia.edu/17743030/The_phonetic_structures_of_Hadza The Phonetic Structures of Hadza.] In [http://repositories.cdlib.org/uclaling/wpp/No84/ ''UCLA Working Papers in Phonetics'' No. 84: ''Fieldwork Studies in Targeted Languages'',] 67–87.
* Kirk Miller (2008). [https://www.academia.edu/36533859/Hadza_grammar_notes Hadza Grammar Notes.] Paper presented at the 3rd International Symposium on Khoisan Languages and Linguistics, Riezlern, 7–9 July 2008.
* ———— (2009). [https://www.academia.edu/36533860/Highlights_of_Hadza_Fieldwork Highlights of Hadza fieldwork.] Paper presented at the 83rd Annual Meeting of the Linguistic Society of America, San Francisco, 8–11 January 2009.
* Bonny Sands (1998). The Linguistic Relationship between Hadza and Khoisan. In Schladt, Matthias (ed.) ''Language, Identity, and Conceptualization among the Khoisan'' (Quellen zur Khoisan-Forschung Vol. 15), Köln: Rüdiger Köppe, 265–283.
* ———— (2013). Phonetics and phonology: Hadza; Tonology: Hadza; Morphology: Hadza; Syntax: Hadza. In Rainer Vossen, ed., ''The Khoesan Languages''. Oxford: Routledge.
*Sergei Starostin. [http://starling.rinet.ru/cgi-bin/response.cgi?root=new100&morpho=0&basename=new100\hdz\hdz&limit=-1 Hadza basic lexicon.] Global Lexicostatistical Database. [much of the parsing is speculation, and Bleek's posthumous data is unreliable]
* A.N. Tucker, M.A. Bryan & James Woodburn as co-author for Hadza (1977). The East African Click Languages: A Phonetic Comparison. In J.G. Moehlig, Franz Rottland, Bernd Heine, eds, ''Zur Sprachgeschichte und Ethnohistorie in Afrika.'' Berlin: Dietrich Diener Verlag.

[[Category:En]]
[[Category:Single language]]

Hadza

2019-03-05T22:52:59Z

Kirk Miller: /* Marginal consonants */

{{InfoboxLanguage
|Language = Hadza
|Autonym = ''Haza, hazane''
|Pronunciation = ɦad͜za
|Ethn15name = Hadza
|Countries = Tanzania
|OfficialLg = none
|OLACname = Hadza
|WALSLoc = 3°45′ S, 35°10′ E
|Speakers = 1,000
|Family = [[isolate]]
|Genus = Hadza
|WritingSyst = none
|ISO3 = hts
}}

Hadza is a language isolate of Tanzania.

=== Location and Speakers ===
Hadza is spoken along the entire eastern shore of alkaline Lake Eyasi, which lies at the base of the Serengeti Plateau in Tanzania, from Mount Oldeani in the north to the Isanzu agricultural areas in the south.

There is a small population of Hadza to the west of the lake, in ''Dunduina'' /duƞtuina/<ref>This article uses the old IPA letter for a moraic nasal, ⟨ƞ⟩, which was retired because it has no specific phonetic value. In Hadza, the moraic nasal is homorganic with a following consonant.</ref> 'Sukumaland', but their number seems to be decreasing and many only speak Sukuma and Swahili.

There are approximately 1,000 speakers of Hadza, most now bilingual in Swahili. Other second languages include [[Isanzu]] in the south, [[Sukuma]] in the west, and to a lesser degree [[Datooga]] in the center (e.g. near the Yaeda Valley) and [[Iraqw]] on the margins of Iraqw territory. The northern Hadza area, around the town of Mangola, was largely monolingual until the introduction of Standard Swahili after independence.

As of 2005, about 40% of Hadza lived as full-time hunter-gatherers, and language transmission was robust in the areas east of the lake, but since then there have been reports of children speaking Swahili east of the lake, perhaps due to the influx of ''Dunduinabee'' abandoning their territory in the west.

=== Classification ===
Hadza is a [[language isolate]]. Greenberg classified it as [[Khoisan]] due to its use of [[click consonant]]s. If it were not for the clicks, it's likely that Hadza would have been classified as [[Cushitic]].

=== Dialects ===
There do not appear to be any dialects of Hadza, presumably due to the mobility of its speakers. There are some regional differences of vocabulary, however, and speakers note that there are many more Bantu loans in the south.

=== Name ===
"Hadza" is the most common name in the literature. ''Haza'' /ɦad͜za/ simply means 'human being'. The derivative "Hadzane" (/ɦad͜zane/ 'in the manner of the people') is sometimes encountered as the name of the language. The feminine plural ''hazabee'' /ɦad͜zabeʔe/ may be used for the people, though it is usually spelled "Hadzabe" due to devoicing of the final vowel. (The feminine is the inclusive gender in the plural.) "Hadzapi" is the masculine copular form ''hazaphii'' /ɦad͜zapʰiʔi/. "Hatza" and "Hatsa" are older German spellings.

"Tindiga" is from the Swahili name, ''watindiga'' 'people of the marsh grass', presumably named for the large spring in Mangola. The form ''wahadza'', ''kihadza'' is found instead of ''watindiga'', ''kitindiga'' in recent Swahili publications, but the Hadza do not consider ''watindiga'' to be pejorative. "Kindiga" may be a cognate from one of the local Bantu languages. "Kangeju" (pronounced ''Kangeyu'') is an obsolete German name of unclear origin. The name "Wahi" (pronounced ''Vahi'') found in Kohl-Larsen is a Sukuma name for the Hadza.

=== Orthography ===
Hadza does not have a written tradition. Two orthographies have seen recent use: the phonetic transcription of Tucker, Bryan & Woodburn (1977), used with some modification by Woodburn and other anthropologists, and the practical orthography of Anyawire et al. (2013). As it is based on the IPA, the Woodburn transcription is more accessible to linguists, while the Anyawire orthography is closer to those of Sandawe and other written languages of Tanzania. There is evidently some political controversy over the choice of orthography, with Hadza reporting they have been told that if they use the Anyawire orthography they will loose their land. There are two motivations for the Anyawire orthography: the perception that the IPA click letters of the Woodburn transcription portray the Hadza language as bizarre, when the Hadza people already have difficulties with being marginalized and a perception that they are not proper human beings, and the practical issue that the ubiquitous apostrophe of the Woodburn transcription makes it impractical for extended use. The apostrophes are generally omitted by those Hadza who have learned it, with the resulting texts often being unintelligible even to their authors; when the apostrophes are written, they greatly slow down the pace of writing. In the Anyawire orthography, doubled consonants and vowels are used for glottalized/ejective consonants and glottal stop, with the apostrophe only being used for the Swahili convention of ⟨ngʼ⟩ for /ŋ/.

The Anyawire orthography is used alongside the IPA in this article for accessibility with the dictionary. For clarity, an apostrophe will be retained for glottal stop between unlike vowels, for e.g. ''ae'' /ae/ vs ''aʼe'' /aʔe/. In practice, the Hadza are more likely to use epenthetic glides between vowels in hiatus, for e.g. ''aye'' /ae/ and ''ae'' /aʔe/.

=== Phonology ===
Hadza syllable structure is limited to CVN in native words. There are no vowel-initial roots, unless ''h'' is analyzed as an allophone of zero. Syllable-coda N surfaces as a homorganic nasal when a following consonant has a place of articulation to assimilate to, and as nasalization of the vowel before a glottal consonant (glottal stop and ''h''/zero) and pre-pausa. Coda N appears allophonically before voiced or glottalized nasal clicks. A moraic (syllabic?) nasal is also found word-initially in loans, where it may have a different pitch than the following vowel; such nasals are analyzed as NCV sequences rather than as a series of prenasalized consonants. Initial NCV may also occur when the initial hV syllable of an hVCV- word is elided and the C2 is a glottalized nasal click.

==== Stress and tone ====
Salient stress and pitch is not restricted to a particular syllable. There are no known minimal pairs, grammatical or lexical, for stress or tone. Pairs claimed in the literature have turned out to either not be distinct or not be minimal pairs. It may be that some loanwords retain their tone from their source language.

==== Vowels ====
There are five phonemic vowels, which are close to cardinal [a e i o u].

{| class="wikitable" style=text-align:center
|+Hadza vowels
| style="background: white" |
! Front
! Central
! Back
|-
! High
| i || || u
|-
! Mid
| e || || o
|-
! Low
| || a ||
|}

Phonetic nasal vowels, which are not common except before a consonant, are here analyzed as /VN/.

Phonetic long vowels are often sequences, as in ''kaha'' [kaː] ~ [kaɦa] 'to climb'. In some words, however, there is no allomorph with [ɦ], as in ''bôko'' [boːko] 'she' (forms a minimal pair with ''boko'' [boko] 'to be ill'). There is no known minimal set to establish long /Vː/ as distinct from a /VV/ sequence.

The mid vowels /e, o/ tend to rise when a high vowel, /i, u/, occurs in the following syllable, and may merge with /i, u/ in that position. However, such assimilation tends to be optional, even in suffixed pronouns such as ''onebii'' [ʔone̝biʔi] ~ ''unibii'' [ʔunibiʔi] 'we' (masculine, inclusive).

/u/ is relatively uncommon except in loans or due to vowel-height assimilation, and does not occur in grammatical morphemes unless the morpheme has a second syllable with vowel /i/.

Vowels tend to devoice pre-pausa and after a voiceless consonant. In the highly frequent pattern of word-final -V₁ʔV₁ (where the two vowels are the same, found in half of all grammatical suffixes and clitics though not frequently elsewhere), the vowel and preceding glottal stop tend to elide completely, whether pre-pausa or before another word.

==== Consonants ====
Hadza has at least 50 productive syllable onsets and several more marginal consonants.

{| class="wikitable" style=text-align:center
|+Principal Hadza consonants (Parentheses: loans. Dark background: may follow a nasal coda.)
! rowspan=2 colspan=2 |
! rowspan=2 | Labial
! rowspan=2 colspan=2 | (Denti-) alveolar
! rowspan=2 | (Post-) alveolar
! rowspan=2 | Palatal
! colspan=2 | Post-velar
! rowspan=2 | Glottal/ placeless
|- class=small
! plain
! labialized
|-
! rowspan=4 | Click
! Aspirated
|
| colspan=2 style="background: silver" | ǀʰ
| style="background: silver" |ǃʰ
| style="background: silver" |ǁʰ
| colspan=3 rowspan=4 style="background: white" |
|-
! Tenuis
|
| colspan=2 style="background: silver" | ǀ
| style="background: silver" |ǃ
| style="background: silver" |ǁ
|-
! Voiced nasal
|
| colspan=2 | ⁿǀ
| ⁿǃ
| ⁿǁ
|-
! Glottalized nasal
|
| colspan=2 | ⁿǀˀ
| ⁿǃˀ
| ⁿǁˀ
|-
! rowspan=5 | Plosive / affricate
|-
! Ejective
| pʼ
| colspan=2| t͜sʼ
| t͜ʃʼ
| c͜ʎ̥˔ʼ
| k͜xʼ
| k͜xʷʼ
| style="background: white" |
|-
! Aspirated
| style="background: silver" |pʰ
| style="background: silver" |tʰ
| style="background: silver" |t͜sʰ
| style="background: silver" |t͜ʃʰ
| c͜ʎ̥˔ʰ
| style="background: silver" |kʰ
| style="background: silver" |kʷʰ
|
|-
! Tenuis
| style="background: silver" |p
| style="background: silver" |t
| style="background: silver" |t͜s
| style="background: silver" |t͜ʃ
| c͜ʎ̥˔
| style="background: silver" |k
| style="background: silver" |kʷ
| style="background: silver" |ʔ
|-
! Voiced
| b
| (d)
| (d͜z)
| (d͜ʒ)
|
| (ɡ)
| (ɡʷ)
| style="background: white" |
|-
! colspan=2| Nasal
| m
| colspan=2| n
| colspan=2| (ɲ)
| (ŋ)
| (ŋʷ)
| //ƞ//
|-
! colspan=2 | Fricative
| (fʷ)
| ɬ
| s
| ʃ
|
|
|
|
|-
! colspan=2 | Sonorant
|
| colspan=2 | ɺ
|
| j
|
| w
| style="background: silver" | ɦ (zero?)
|}

Consonants in parentheses are thought to be loans, though the voiced obstruents at least are well-integrated and may be spreading to native roots.

Consonants with a grey background may follow a coda nasal. (That is, they may be C2 in a CVNCV pattern.) /ǃ/ and /ǁ/ are not attested in this position, but it is suspected these are accidental gaps, given that only two roots are known with /ǀ/ after a nasal and that the gaps have not yet been investigated in the field.

The voice-onset time of consonants is reduced after a nasal coda: tenuis consonants may be partially or completely voiced, and the aspiration of aspirated consonants may be reduced or lost. This is true of clicks as well as of plosives and affricates. A /b/~/p/ distinction has not been found in this position despite /b/ being native.

Aspirated consonants may only be distinct in the first several syllables of a word. Many speakers distinguish aspirated plosives in only a few words, but maintain a robust distinction for affricates and clicks. The reason for this asymmetry is unknown.

The glottalized nasal clicks surface as e.g. [ǃʔ] post-pausa and often [ŋ͡nʔǃ] intervocalically. Accounts differ as to whether there is voiceless nasal airflow in post-pausa position.

Aspirated clicks may have a delayed and clearly audible posterior release, e.g. [ǃʰ] ~ [ǃkʰ]. This release has the same post-velar articulation as the k-series of plosives.

The ǃ-clicks tend to be weakly articulated, though, so far as is known, not slapped as has been reported from Sandawe. When intervocalic, /ⁿǃ/ may surface as or nearly as [ŋ͡n]. The ǁ-clicks, on the other hand, are typically quite salient.

Among the ejectives, /pʼ/ is uncommon. Many vary between affricate and fricative realizations. [sʼ, ʃʼ, xʼ, xʷʼ] have been noted. /k͜xʼ/ and /k͜xʷʼ/ have plosive allophones [kʼ, kʷʼ], and at least /k͜xʼ/ has a lateral allophone [k͜ʟ̝̊ʼ]. /t͜sʼ/ may be the ejective correlate of both the /t/ and /t͜s/ series of pulmonic consonants.

The palatal lateral affricates may be pronounced with an alveolar onset, e.g. [t͜ʎ̥˔], or without involving the front of the tongue, e.g. [c͜ʎ̥˔]. Speakers express no preference when hearing these articulations. The fricative /ɬ/ is alveolar; a palatal articulation is not accepted. Given that the fricative may be pronounced as an affricate in some prosodic situations, this means that there is a three-way phonetic place contrast among laterals: [t͜ɬ] vs [t͜ʎ̥˔ ~ c͜ʎ̥˔] and [t͜ʎ̥˔ʼ ~ c͜ʎ̥˔ʼ] vs [k͜ʟ̝̊ʼ].

/ɺ/ is typically realized as [l] post-pausa and [ɾ] elsewhere, though [ɺ] is not uncommon. It also tends toward [l] when it occurs as both C1 and C2, as in /ɺoɺa/ (sp. rabbit).

[ɦ] and zero may be allophones. If so, and given that vowel-initial suffixes may elide a stem-final vowel, it would be simplest to posit that the phoneme is zero and [ɦ] an allophone of zero, rather than that /ɦ/ is elided under some conditions. A predictive conditioning environment for the presence or absence of [ɦ] has not been discovered, but prosody may play a role; even vowel-initial suffixes and clitics may be realized with an initial [ɦ] when given contrastive prosody. Assimilation or bilingualism may be involved in the case of loanwords. For instance, an Isanzu loan for 'snake' was recorded as ''ihato'' /ʔiɦato/ at the beginning of the 20th century (and perhaps in an Isanzu-biligual area) but as ''iyato'' /ʔiato/ at the beginning of the 21st century in Mangola.

The glides /j/ and /w/ are not distinctive next to front (/i, e/) and back (/o, u/) vowels, respectively. It is possible that they are allophones of /i/ and /u/. When they occur word-initially, purported /jV, wV/ often appear as [ʔijV] and [ʔuwV]. This is true even of a ubiquitous sequential auxiliary (''yamo'' [jamo] ~ ''iamo'' [ʔiamo] in the 3msg posterior (past?) tense). /j/ does however occur in two object suffixes where such variation has not been noted. In the anthropological and linguistic literature, glides are often written between unlike vowels. For example, the 3msg non-past copula clitic ''-ha'' /ɦa/ is often transcribed 'ya' after a front vowel and 'wa' after a back vowel.

===== Marginal consonants =====

A labial click, variously reported as [ⁿʘʷ] or [ⁿʘˀ], is found in a single root, ''mcwa-'', that is mimetic for a kiss and often made with an accompanying kiss to the hand. ''Mcwa-'' may be allomorphic with ''ncuwa-'' /ⁿǀua/ with a dental click.

A trill [r] is used by some speakers in some words, such as ''karro'' /karo/ (hunting/sighting name for a female giraffe), perhaps reflecting the pronunciation of the word in the language it was borrowed from. It is replaced with /ɺ/ (''karo'' /kaɺo/) by other speakers.

An implosive [ɓ] is used by some speakers in some words, perhaps reflecting the pronunciation of the word in the source language, though in some instances it might co-occur with ejectives, which would be difficult to explain away as a loan (e.g. ''beggawuko'' /bekx’auko/ 'elephant', apparently [ɓekx’auko] in some recordings). It is replaced with /b/ by other speakers. Other implosives have not been noted.

A fricative [x] occurs lexicalized in an expletive, ''ahho'' [ʔaxo], where otherwise the root is ''akho'' /ʔakʰo/ 'genitals'. (/kʰ/ is commonly realized as [kx].)

Word-initial /mu/ and occasionally /mo/ are optionally realized as syllabic [m̩], for example in the common greeting ''mutana'' ~ ''mtana''. This is a Bantu alternation.

===== Phonotactics =====
All clicks within a root must be the same, as in /ǀikiɺiƞǀa/ 'pinkie'. Although there is a tendency for clicks and ejectives to occur as C1, in a quarter of click words the click occurs as C2.

Clicks and ejectives may co-occur, but always in that order. When they co-occur, there appears to be some sibilant harmony, with a strong tendency for /t͜sʼ/ to occur with denti-alveolar clicks and for /c͜ʎ̥˔ʼ/ to occur with lateral clicks.

When an aspirated consonant occurs more than once in a word, the first tends to deaspirate (Grassmann's/Katupha's Law, though generally optional). A coda N may block deaspiration, as in the allomorphs /peǃeǃʰe/ ~ /peƞǃʰeƞǃʰe/ 'to rush'. NC sequences may loose their nasal segment as well, as in /ƞtʰaɺaƞtʰaɺaʔabiʔi/ ~ /taɺaƞtʰaɺaʔabiʔi/ '(arrow) barbs'. It is not clear to what extent these patterns hold with two different aspirated consonants.

===Swadesh lists===
Only roots are given. For example, the word for 'name', given as the root ''akhana'' below, is actually feminine plural ''akhanabee''.

====Wichmann & Holman basic 40-word list (ordered by stability)====

#louse ''ccamazzi'' /ⁿǀˀamat͜sʼi/<ref>cf. ''ccezze'' /ⁿǀˀet͜s’e/ 'tick'</ref>
#two ''piye'' /pie/, ''konxa'' /koⁿǁa/ (verb)
#water ''ati'' /ʔati/ (mpl; msg = 'rain, river')
#ear ''hajjapitchi'' /ɦat͜ʃ’apit͜ʃʰi/<ref>from ''hazzape'' /ɦat͜s’ape/ 'leaf'?</ref>
#to die ''taxxi'' /taⁿǁˀi/, ''misi'' /misi/ (Datooga?)
#I *one /ʔone/, */-ko/<ref>If *-ko-a > /-kʷa/ rather than *-kʷa-ʔV > /-koʔo/.</ref>
#liver ''xxe'' /ⁿǁˀe/
#eye ''akhwa'' /ʔakʷʰa/
#hand, arm ''ukhwa'' /ʔukʷʰa/
#hear ''nxaʼe'' /ⁿǁaʔe/
#tree ''zziti'' /t͜s’iti/
#fish ''ccama'' /ⁿǀˀama/, ''ccara'' /ⁿǀˀaɺa/
#name ''akhana'' /ʔakʰana/
#stone ''haqqa'' /ɦaⁿǃˀa/
#tooth ''aha'' /ʔaɦa/
#breast ''iriba'' /ʔiɺiba/ ('breasts, milk'. Cushitic); ''ggazza'' /k͜x’at͜s’a/ ('flesh at sternum')
#thou ''the'' /tʰe/, /-en-/ (m), /-n-/ (f)
#path ''yeke'' /jeke/
#bone ''midla'' /mic͜ʎ̥˔’a/ (cf. Dahalo)
#tongue ''ncata'' /ⁿǀata/
#skin ''ahu'' /ʔaɦu/
#night ''zzifi'' /t͜s’ifi/ (m; f = 'day')
#leaf ''hazzape'' /ɦat͜s’ape/
#rain = 'water' (msg = 'rain, river'; mpl = 'water')
#kill ''xô'' /ǁoː/
#blood ''athama'' /ʔatʰama/
#horn ''roo'' /ɺoʔo/
#person ''haza'' /ɦad͜za/ (human), ''unu'' /ʔunu/ (person)
#knee ''guringuri'' /ɡuɺiƞɡuɺi/ ~ ''gurunguri'' /ɡuɺuƞɡuɺi/ (Cushitic? pan-African)
#one ''itchâme'' /ʔit͜ʃʰaːme/
#nose ''intawe'' /ʔiƞtʰawe/
#full ''ggaʼe'' /k͜x’aʔe/, *cco- /ⁿǀˀo-/
#come ''za'' /d͜za/ (Bantu), ''botco'' /bot͜ʃo/ (stem of imperative)
#star ''ntsa'' /ƞt͜sʰa/, ''sa'' /sa/ (Cushitic?)<ref>Anyawire et al. (2013) only found ''ntsa''. Tucker et al. (1977) report ''sa'' 'star', and Woodburn confirms the form he knows does not have a nasal onset. /ƞ/ + /sa/ would generate /ƞt͜sʰa/. Indeed, speakers do not care if the latter is written ''ntsa'' or ''nsa''. There are several Cushitic loanwords that have an onset that varies as C ~ NC in Hadza where the source language is only reconstructed with C.</ref>
#mountain ''xxudle'' /ⁿǁˀuc͜ʎ̥˔’e/
#fire ''zzoko'' /t͜s’oko/
#we (exclusive) ''ô'' /ʔoː/, /-j-/
#to drink ''fa'' /fʷa/
#to see ''chî'' /ǀʰiː/ ~ ''cî'' /ǀiː/
#bark ''heggwa'' /ɦek͜xʷ’a/
#new ''zana'' /d͜zana/<ref>from ''za'' 'come'?</ref>
#dog ''xhaano'' /ǁʰaʔano/, ''tîngi'' /tiːƞki/
#sun ''isho'' /ʔiʃo/

====Other Swadesh-100 words====

===Notes===
<references/>

===Bibliography===

* Mariamu Anyawire, G.G. Bala, Kirk Miller & Bonny Sands (2013). ''A Hadza Lexicon'' (ms). Kirk Miller, ed.
* Roger Blench (2008). [https://web.archive.org/web/20110721180216/http://www.rogerblench.info/Language%20data/Khoesan/Blench%20paper%20Riezlern%202008.pdf Hadza Animal Names.] Paper presented at the 3rd International Symposium on Khoisan Languages and Linguistics, Riezlern, 7–9 July 2008.
* Niklas Edenmyr (2004). [https://web.archive.org/web/20070706040409/http://www.african.gu.se/aa/pdfs/aa04003.pdf The semantics of Hadza gender assignment: a few notes from the field.] ''Africa & Asia'', no. 4, Department of Oriental and African languages, Göteborg University, 3–19.
* Edward Elderkin (1978). Loans in Hadza: internal evidence from consonants. ''Occasional Papers'' 3, Dar es Salaam.
* Peter Ladefoged, Ian Maddieson & Bonny Sands, Bonny (1991). [http://archive.phonetics.ucla.edu/Language/HTS/hts.html Hadza wordlist and sound files]. UCLA Phonetics Lab Archive.
* ———— (1993). [https://www.academia.edu/17743030/The_phonetic_structures_of_Hadza The Phonetic Structures of Hadza.] In [http://repositories.cdlib.org/uclaling/wpp/No84/ ''UCLA Working Papers in Phonetics'' No. 84: ''Fieldwork Studies in Targeted Languages'',] 67–87.
* Kirk Miller (2008). [https://www.academia.edu/36533859/Hadza_grammar_notes Hadza Grammar Notes.] Paper presented at the 3rd International Symposium on Khoisan Languages and Linguistics, Riezlern, 7–9 July 2008.
* ———— (2009). [https://www.academia.edu/36533860/Highlights_of_Hadza_Fieldwork Highlights of Hadza fieldwork.] Paper presented at the 83rd Annual Meeting of the Linguistic Society of America, San Francisco, 8–11 January 2009.
* Bonny Sands (1998). The Linguistic Relationship between Hadza and Khoisan. In Schladt, Matthias (ed.) ''Language, Identity, and Conceptualization among the Khoisan'' (Quellen zur Khoisan-Forschung Vol. 15), Köln: Rüdiger Köppe, 265–283.
* ———— (2013). Phonetics and phonology: Hadza; Tonology: Hadza; Morphology: Hadza; Syntax: Hadza. In Rainer Vossen, ed., ''The Khoesan Languages''. Oxford: Routledge.
*Sergei Starostin. [http://starling.rinet.ru/cgi-bin/response.cgi?root=new100&morpho=0&basename=new100\hdz\hdz&limit=-1 Hadza basic lexicon.] Global Lexicostatistical Database. [much of the parsing is speculation, and Bleek's posthumous data is unreliable]
* A.N. Tucker, M.A. Bryan & James Woodburn as co-author for Hadza (1977). The East African Click Languages: A Phonetic Comparison. In J.G. Moehlig, Franz Rottland, Bernd Heine, eds, ''Zur Sprachgeschichte und Ethnohistorie in Afrika.'' Berlin: Dietrich Diener Verlag.

[[Category:En]]
[[Category:Single language]]

Hadza

2019-03-05T22:41:11Z

Kirk Miller: /* Consonants */

{{InfoboxLanguage
|Language = Hadza
|Autonym = ''Haza, hazane''
|Pronunciation = ɦad͜za
|Ethn15name = Hadza
|Countries = Tanzania
|OfficialLg = none
|OLACname = Hadza
|WALSLoc = 3°45′ S, 35°10′ E
|Speakers = 1,000
|Family = [[isolate]]
|Genus = Hadza
|WritingSyst = none
|ISO3 = hts
}}

Hadza is a language isolate of Tanzania.

=== Location and Speakers ===
Hadza is spoken along the entire eastern shore of alkaline Lake Eyasi, which lies at the base of the Serengeti Plateau in Tanzania, from Mount Oldeani in the north to the Isanzu agricultural areas in the south.

There is a small population of Hadza to the west of the lake, in ''Dunduina'' /duƞtuina/<ref>This article uses the old IPA letter for a moraic nasal, ⟨ƞ⟩, which was retired because it has no specific phonetic value. In Hadza, the moraic nasal is homorganic with a following consonant.</ref> 'Sukumaland', but their number seems to be decreasing and many only speak Sukuma and Swahili.

There are approximately 1,000 speakers of Hadza, most now bilingual in Swahili. Other second languages include [[Isanzu]] in the south, [[Sukuma]] in the west, and to a lesser degree [[Datooga]] in the center (e.g. near the Yaeda Valley) and [[Iraqw]] on the margins of Iraqw territory. The northern Hadza area, around the town of Mangola, was largely monolingual until the introduction of Standard Swahili after independence.

As of 2005, about 40% of Hadza lived as full-time hunter-gatherers, and language transmission was robust in the areas east of the lake, but since then there have been reports of children speaking Swahili east of the lake, perhaps due to the influx of ''Dunduinabee'' abandoning their territory in the west.

=== Classification ===
Hadza is a [[language isolate]]. Greenberg classified it as [[Khoisan]] due to its use of [[click consonant]]s. If it were not for the clicks, it's likely that Hadza would have been classified as [[Cushitic]].

=== Dialects ===
There do not appear to be any dialects of Hadza, presumably due to the mobility of its speakers. There are some regional differences of vocabulary, however, and speakers note that there are many more Bantu loans in the south.

=== Name ===
"Hadza" is the most common name in the literature. ''Haza'' /ɦad͜za/ simply means 'human being'. The derivative "Hadzane" (/ɦad͜zane/ 'in the manner of the people') is sometimes encountered as the name of the language. The feminine plural ''hazabee'' /ɦad͜zabeʔe/ may be used for the people, though it is usually spelled "Hadzabe" due to devoicing of the final vowel. (The feminine is the inclusive gender in the plural.) "Hadzapi" is the masculine copular form ''hazaphii'' /ɦad͜zapʰiʔi/. "Hatza" and "Hatsa" are older German spellings.

"Tindiga" is from the Swahili name, ''watindiga'' 'people of the marsh grass', presumably named for the large spring in Mangola. The form ''wahadza'', ''kihadza'' is found instead of ''watindiga'', ''kitindiga'' in recent Swahili publications, but the Hadza do not consider ''watindiga'' to be pejorative. "Kindiga" may be a cognate from one of the local Bantu languages. "Kangeju" (pronounced ''Kangeyu'') is an obsolete German name of unclear origin. The name "Wahi" (pronounced ''Vahi'') found in Kohl-Larsen is a Sukuma name for the Hadza.

=== Orthography ===
Hadza does not have a written tradition. Two orthographies have seen recent use: the phonetic transcription of Tucker, Bryan & Woodburn (1977), used with some modification by Woodburn and other anthropologists, and the practical orthography of Anyawire et al. (2013). As it is based on the IPA, the Woodburn transcription is more accessible to linguists, while the Anyawire orthography is closer to those of Sandawe and other written languages of Tanzania. There is evidently some political controversy over the choice of orthography, with Hadza reporting they have been told that if they use the Anyawire orthography they will loose their land. There are two motivations for the Anyawire orthography: the perception that the IPA click letters of the Woodburn transcription portray the Hadza language as bizarre, when the Hadza people already have difficulties with being marginalized and a perception that they are not proper human beings, and the practical issue that the ubiquitous apostrophe of the Woodburn transcription makes it impractical for extended use. The apostrophes are generally omitted by those Hadza who have learned it, with the resulting texts often being unintelligible even to their authors; when the apostrophes are written, they greatly slow down the pace of writing. In the Anyawire orthography, doubled consonants and vowels are used for glottalized/ejective consonants and glottal stop, with the apostrophe only being used for the Swahili convention of ⟨ngʼ⟩ for /ŋ/.

The Anyawire orthography is used alongside the IPA in this article for accessibility with the dictionary. For clarity, an apostrophe will be retained for glottal stop between unlike vowels, for e.g. ''ae'' /ae/ vs ''aʼe'' /aʔe/. In practice, the Hadza are more likely to use epenthetic glides between vowels in hiatus, for e.g. ''aye'' /ae/ and ''ae'' /aʔe/.

=== Phonology ===
Hadza syllable structure is limited to CVN in native words. There are no vowel-initial roots, unless ''h'' is analyzed as an allophone of zero. Syllable-coda N surfaces as a homorganic nasal when a following consonant has a place of articulation to assimilate to, and as nasalization of the vowel before a glottal consonant (glottal stop and ''h''/zero) and pre-pausa. Coda N appears allophonically before voiced or glottalized nasal clicks. A moraic (syllabic?) nasal is also found word-initially in loans, where it may have a different pitch than the following vowel; such nasals are analyzed as NCV sequences rather than as a series of prenasalized consonants. Initial NCV may also occur when the initial hV syllable of an hVCV- word is elided and the C2 is a glottalized nasal click.

==== Stress and tone ====
Salient stress and pitch is not restricted to a particular syllable. There are no known minimal pairs, grammatical or lexical, for stress or tone. Pairs claimed in the literature have turned out to either not be distinct or not be minimal pairs. It may be that some loanwords retain their tone from their source language.

==== Vowels ====
There are five phonemic vowels, which are close to cardinal [a e i o u].

{| class="wikitable" style=text-align:center
|+Hadza vowels
| style="background: white" |
! Front
! Central
! Back
|-
! High
| i || || u
|-
! Mid
| e || || o
|-
! Low
| || a ||
|}

Phonetic nasal vowels, which are not common except before a consonant, are here analyzed as /VN/.

Phonetic long vowels are often sequences, as in ''kaha'' [kaː] ~ [kaɦa] 'to climb'. In some words, however, there is no allomorph with [ɦ], as in ''bôko'' [boːko] 'she' (forms a minimal pair with ''boko'' [boko] 'to be ill'). There is no known minimal set to establish long /Vː/ as distinct from a /VV/ sequence.

The mid vowels /e, o/ tend to rise when a high vowel, /i, u/, occurs in the following syllable, and may merge with /i, u/ in that position. However, such assimilation tends to be optional, even in suffixed pronouns such as ''onebii'' [ʔone̝biʔi] ~ ''unibii'' [ʔunibiʔi] 'we' (masculine, inclusive).

/u/ is relatively uncommon except in loans or due to vowel-height assimilation, and does not occur in grammatical morphemes unless the morpheme has a second syllable with vowel /i/.

Vowels tend to devoice pre-pausa and after a voiceless consonant. In the highly frequent pattern of word-final -V₁ʔV₁ (where the two vowels are the same, found in half of all grammatical suffixes and clitics though not frequently elsewhere), the vowel and preceding glottal stop tend to elide completely, whether pre-pausa or before another word.

==== Consonants ====
Hadza has at least 50 productive syllable onsets and several more marginal consonants.

{| class="wikitable" style=text-align:center
|+Principal Hadza consonants (Parentheses: loans. Dark background: may follow a nasal coda.)
! rowspan=2 colspan=2 |
! rowspan=2 | Labial
! rowspan=2 colspan=2 | (Denti-) alveolar
! rowspan=2 | (Post-) alveolar
! rowspan=2 | Palatal
! colspan=2 | Post-velar
! rowspan=2 | Glottal/ placeless
|- class=small
! plain
! labialized
|-
! rowspan=4 | Click
! Aspirated
|
| colspan=2 style="background: silver" | ǀʰ
| style="background: silver" |ǃʰ
| style="background: silver" |ǁʰ
| colspan=3 rowspan=4 style="background: white" |
|-
! Tenuis
|
| colspan=2 style="background: silver" | ǀ
| style="background: silver" |ǃ
| style="background: silver" |ǁ
|-
! Voiced nasal
|
| colspan=2 | ⁿǀ
| ⁿǃ
| ⁿǁ
|-
! Glottalized nasal
|
| colspan=2 | ⁿǀˀ
| ⁿǃˀ
| ⁿǁˀ
|-
! rowspan=5 | Plosive / affricate
|-
! Ejective
| pʼ
| colspan=2| t͜sʼ
| t͜ʃʼ
| c͜ʎ̥˔ʼ
| k͜xʼ
| k͜xʷʼ
| style="background: white" |
|-
! Aspirated
| style="background: silver" |pʰ
| style="background: silver" |tʰ
| style="background: silver" |t͜sʰ
| style="background: silver" |t͜ʃʰ
| c͜ʎ̥˔ʰ
| style="background: silver" |kʰ
| style="background: silver" |kʷʰ
|
|-
! Tenuis
| style="background: silver" |p
| style="background: silver" |t
| style="background: silver" |t͜s
| style="background: silver" |t͜ʃ
| c͜ʎ̥˔
| style="background: silver" |k
| style="background: silver" |kʷ
| style="background: silver" |ʔ
|-
! Voiced
| b
| (d)
| (d͜z)
| (d͜ʒ)
|
| (ɡ)
| (ɡʷ)
| style="background: white" |
|-
! colspan=2| Nasal
| m
| colspan=2| n
| colspan=2| (ɲ)
| (ŋ)
| (ŋʷ)
| //ƞ//
|-
! colspan=2 | Fricative
| (fʷ)
| ɬ
| s
| ʃ
|
|
|
|
|-
! colspan=2 | Sonorant
|
| colspan=2 | ɺ
|
| j
|
| w
| style="background: silver" | ɦ (zero?)
|}

Consonants in parentheses are thought to be loans, though the voiced obstruents at least are well-integrated and may be spreading to native roots.

Consonants with a grey background may follow a coda nasal. (That is, they may be C2 in a CVNCV pattern.) /ǃ/ and /ǁ/ are not attested in this position, but it is suspected these are accidental gaps, given that only two roots are known with /ǀ/ after a nasal and that the gaps have not yet been investigated in the field.

The voice-onset time of consonants is reduced after a nasal coda: tenuis consonants may be partially or completely voiced, and the aspiration of aspirated consonants may be reduced or lost. This is true of clicks as well as of plosives and affricates. A /b/~/p/ distinction has not been found in this position despite /b/ being native.

Aspirated consonants may only be distinct in the first several syllables of a word. Many speakers distinguish aspirated plosives in only a few words, but maintain a robust distinction for affricates and clicks. The reason for this asymmetry is unknown.

The glottalized nasal clicks surface as e.g. [ǃʔ] post-pausa and often [ŋ͡nʔǃ] intervocalically. Accounts differ as to whether there is voiceless nasal airflow in post-pausa position.

Aspirated clicks may have a delayed and clearly audible posterior release, e.g. [ǃʰ] ~ [ǃkʰ]. This release has the same post-velar articulation as the k-series of plosives.

The ǃ-clicks tend to be weakly articulated, though, so far as is known, not slapped as has been reported from Sandawe. When intervocalic, /ⁿǃ/ may surface as or nearly as [ŋ͡n]. The ǁ-clicks, on the other hand, are typically quite salient.

Among the ejectives, /pʼ/ is uncommon. Many vary between affricate and fricative realizations. [sʼ, ʃʼ, xʼ, xʷʼ] have been noted. /k͜xʼ/ and /k͜xʷʼ/ have plosive allophones [kʼ, kʷʼ], and at least /k͜xʼ/ has a lateral allophone [k͜ʟ̝̊ʼ]. /t͜sʼ/ may be the ejective correlate of both the /t/ and /t͜s/ series of pulmonic consonants.

The palatal lateral affricates may be pronounced with an alveolar onset, e.g. [t͜ʎ̥˔], or without involving the front of the tongue, e.g. [c͜ʎ̥˔]. Speakers express no preference when hearing these articulations. The fricative /ɬ/ is alveolar; a palatal articulation is not accepted. Given that the fricative may be pronounced as an affricate in some prosodic situations, this means that there is a three-way phonetic place contrast among laterals: [t͜ɬ] vs [t͜ʎ̥˔ ~ c͜ʎ̥˔] and [t͜ʎ̥˔ʼ ~ c͜ʎ̥˔ʼ] vs [k͜ʟ̝̊ʼ].

/ɺ/ is typically realized as [l] post-pausa and [ɾ] elsewhere, though [ɺ] is not uncommon. It also tends toward [l] when it occurs as both C1 and C2, as in /ɺoɺa/ (sp. rabbit).

[ɦ] and zero may be allophones. If so, and given that vowel-initial suffixes may elide a stem-final vowel, it would be simplest to posit that the phoneme is zero and [ɦ] an allophone of zero, rather than that /ɦ/ is elided under some conditions. A predictive conditioning environment for the presence or absence of [ɦ] has not been discovered, but prosody may play a role; even vowel-initial suffixes and clitics may be realized with an initial [ɦ] when given contrastive prosody. Assimilation or bilingualism may be involved in the case of loanwords. For instance, an Isanzu loan for 'snake' was recorded as ''ihato'' /ʔiɦato/ at the beginning of the 20th century (and perhaps in an Isanzu-biligual area) but as ''iyato'' /ʔiato/ at the beginning of the 21st century in Mangola.

The glides /j/ and /w/ are not distinctive next to front (/i, e/) and back (/o, u/) vowels, respectively. It is possible that they are allophones of /i/ and /u/. When they occur word-initially, purported /jV, wV/ often appear as [ʔijV] and [ʔuwV]. This is true even of a ubiquitous sequential auxiliary (''yamo'' [jamo] ~ ''iamo'' [ʔiamo] in the 3msg posterior (past?) tense). /j/ does however occur in two object suffixes where such variation has not been noted. In the anthropological and linguistic literature, glides are often written between unlike vowels. For example, the 3msg non-past copula clitic ''-ha'' /ɦa/ is often transcribed 'ya' after a front vowel and 'wa' after a back vowel.

===== Marginal consonants =====

A labial click, variously reported as [ⁿʘʷ] or [ⁿʘˀ], is found in a single root, ''mcwa-'', that is mimetic for a kiss and often made with an accompanying kiss to the hand. ''Mcwa-'' may be allomorphic with ''ncuwa-'' /ⁿǀua/ with a dental click.

A trill [r] is used by some speakers in some words, perhaps reflecting the pronunciation of the word in the language it was borrowed from. It is replaced with /ɺ/ by other speakers.

An implosive [ɓ] is used by some speakers in some words, perhaps reflecting the pronunciation of the word in the source language. It is replaced with /b/ by other speakers. Other implosives have not been noted.

A fricative [x] occurs lexicalized in an expletive, ''ahho'' [ʔaxo], where otherwise the root is ''akho'' /ʔakʰo/ 'genitals'. (/kʰ/ is commonly realized as [kx].)

===== Phonotactics =====
All clicks within a root must be the same, as in /ǀikiɺiƞǀa/ 'pinkie'. Although there is a tendency for clicks and ejectives to occur as C1, in a quarter of click words the click occurs as C2.

Clicks and ejectives may co-occur, but always in that order. When they co-occur, there appears to be some sibilant harmony, with a strong tendency for /t͜sʼ/ to occur with denti-alveolar clicks and for /c͜ʎ̥˔ʼ/ to occur with lateral clicks.

When an aspirated consonant occurs more than once in a word, the first tends to deaspirate (Grassmann's/Katupha's Law, though generally optional). A coda N may block deaspiration, as in the allomorphs /peǃeǃʰe/ ~ /peƞǃʰeƞǃʰe/ 'to rush'. NC sequences may loose their nasal segment as well, as in /ƞtʰaɺaƞtʰaɺaʔabiʔi/ ~ /taɺaƞtʰaɺaʔabiʔi/ '(arrow) barbs'. It is not clear to what extent these patterns hold with two different aspirated consonants.

===Swadesh lists===
Only roots are given. For example, the word for 'name', given as the root ''akhana'' below, is actually feminine plural ''akhanabee''.

====Wichmann & Holman basic 40-word list (ordered by stability)====

#louse ''ccamazzi'' /ⁿǀˀamat͜sʼi/<ref>cf. ''ccezze'' /ⁿǀˀet͜s’e/ 'tick'</ref>
#two ''piye'' /pie/, ''konxa'' /koⁿǁa/ (verb)
#water ''ati'' /ʔati/ (mpl; msg = 'rain, river')
#ear ''hajjapitchi'' /ɦat͜ʃ’apit͜ʃʰi/<ref>from ''hazzape'' /ɦat͜s’ape/ 'leaf'?</ref>
#to die ''taxxi'' /taⁿǁˀi/, ''misi'' /misi/ (Datooga?)
#I *one /ʔone/, */-ko/<ref>If *-ko-a > /-kʷa/ rather than *-kʷa-ʔV > /-koʔo/.</ref>
#liver ''xxe'' /ⁿǁˀe/
#eye ''akhwa'' /ʔakʷʰa/
#hand, arm ''ukhwa'' /ʔukʷʰa/
#hear ''nxaʼe'' /ⁿǁaʔe/
#tree ''zziti'' /t͜s’iti/
#fish ''ccama'' /ⁿǀˀama/, ''ccara'' /ⁿǀˀaɺa/
#name ''akhana'' /ʔakʰana/
#stone ''haqqa'' /ɦaⁿǃˀa/
#tooth ''aha'' /ʔaɦa/
#breast ''iriba'' /ʔiɺiba/ ('breasts, milk'. Cushitic); ''ggazza'' /k͜x’at͜s’a/ ('flesh at sternum')
#thou ''the'' /tʰe/, /-en-/ (m), /-n-/ (f)
#path ''yeke'' /jeke/
#bone ''midla'' /mic͜ʎ̥˔’a/ (cf. Dahalo)
#tongue ''ncata'' /ⁿǀata/
#skin ''ahu'' /ʔaɦu/
#night ''zzifi'' /t͜s’ifi/ (m; f = 'day')
#leaf ''hazzape'' /ɦat͜s’ape/
#rain = 'water' (msg = 'rain, river'; mpl = 'water')
#kill ''xô'' /ǁoː/
#blood ''athama'' /ʔatʰama/
#horn ''roo'' /ɺoʔo/
#person ''haza'' /ɦad͜za/ (human), ''unu'' /ʔunu/ (person)
#knee ''guringuri'' /ɡuɺiƞɡuɺi/ ~ ''gurunguri'' /ɡuɺuƞɡuɺi/ (Cushitic? pan-African)
#one ''itchâme'' /ʔit͜ʃʰaːme/
#nose ''intawe'' /ʔiƞtʰawe/
#full ''ggaʼe'' /k͜x’aʔe/, *cco- /ⁿǀˀo-/
#come ''za'' /d͜za/ (Bantu), ''botco'' /bot͜ʃo/ (stem of imperative)
#star ''ntsa'' /ƞt͜sʰa/, ''sa'' /sa/ (Cushitic?)<ref>Anyawire et al. (2013) only found ''ntsa''. Tucker et al. (1977) report ''sa'' 'star', and Woodburn confirms the form he knows does not have a nasal onset. /ƞ/ + /sa/ would generate /ƞt͜sʰa/. Indeed, speakers do not care if the latter is written ''ntsa'' or ''nsa''. There are several Cushitic loanwords that have an onset that varies as C ~ NC in Hadza where the source language is only reconstructed with C.</ref>
#mountain ''xxudle'' /ⁿǁˀuc͜ʎ̥˔’e/
#fire ''zzoko'' /t͜s’oko/
#we (exclusive) ''ô'' /ʔoː/, /-j-/
#to drink ''fa'' /fʷa/
#to see ''chî'' /ǀʰiː/ ~ ''cî'' /ǀiː/
#bark ''heggwa'' /ɦek͜xʷ’a/
#new ''zana'' /d͜zana/<ref>from ''za'' 'come'?</ref>
#dog ''xhaano'' /ǁʰaʔano/, ''tîngi'' /tiːƞki/
#sun ''isho'' /ʔiʃo/

====Other Swadesh-100 words====

===Notes===
<references/>

===Bibliography===

* Mariamu Anyawire, G.G. Bala, Kirk Miller & Bonny Sands (2013). ''A Hadza Lexicon'' (ms). Kirk Miller, ed.
* Roger Blench (2008). [https://web.archive.org/web/20110721180216/http://www.rogerblench.info/Language%20data/Khoesan/Blench%20paper%20Riezlern%202008.pdf Hadza Animal Names.] Paper presented at the 3rd International Symposium on Khoisan Languages and Linguistics, Riezlern, 7–9 July 2008.
* Niklas Edenmyr (2004). [https://web.archive.org/web/20070706040409/http://www.african.gu.se/aa/pdfs/aa04003.pdf The semantics of Hadza gender assignment: a few notes from the field.] ''Africa & Asia'', no. 4, Department of Oriental and African languages, Göteborg University, 3–19.
* Edward Elderkin (1978). Loans in Hadza: internal evidence from consonants. ''Occasional Papers'' 3, Dar es Salaam.
* Peter Ladefoged, Ian Maddieson & Bonny Sands, Bonny (1991). [http://archive.phonetics.ucla.edu/Language/HTS/hts.html Hadza wordlist and sound files]. UCLA Phonetics Lab Archive.
* ———— (1993). [https://www.academia.edu/17743030/The_phonetic_structures_of_Hadza The Phonetic Structures of Hadza.] In [http://repositories.cdlib.org/uclaling/wpp/No84/ ''UCLA Working Papers in Phonetics'' No. 84: ''Fieldwork Studies in Targeted Languages'',] 67–87.
* Kirk Miller (2008). [https://www.academia.edu/36533859/Hadza_grammar_notes Hadza Grammar Notes.] Paper presented at the 3rd International Symposium on Khoisan Languages and Linguistics, Riezlern, 7–9 July 2008.
* ———— (2009). [https://www.academia.edu/36533860/Highlights_of_Hadza_Fieldwork Highlights of Hadza fieldwork.] Paper presented at the 83rd Annual Meeting of the Linguistic Society of America, San Francisco, 8–11 January 2009.
* Bonny Sands (1998). The Linguistic Relationship between Hadza and Khoisan. In Schladt, Matthias (ed.) ''Language, Identity, and Conceptualization among the Khoisan'' (Quellen zur Khoisan-Forschung Vol. 15), Köln: Rüdiger Köppe, 265–283.
* ———— (2013). Phonetics and phonology: Hadza; Tonology: Hadza; Morphology: Hadza; Syntax: Hadza. In Rainer Vossen, ed., ''The Khoesan Languages''. Oxford: Routledge.
*Sergei Starostin. [http://starling.rinet.ru/cgi-bin/response.cgi?root=new100&morpho=0&basename=new100\hdz\hdz&limit=-1 Hadza basic lexicon.] Global Lexicostatistical Database. [much of the parsing is speculation, and Bleek's posthumous data is unreliable]
* A.N. Tucker, M.A. Bryan & James Woodburn as co-author for Hadza (1977). The East African Click Languages: A Phonetic Comparison. In J.G. Moehlig, Franz Rottland, Bernd Heine, eds, ''Zur Sprachgeschichte und Ethnohistorie in Afrika.'' Berlin: Dietrich Diener Verlag.

[[Category:En]]
[[Category:Single language]]

Hadza

2019-03-05T22:35:59Z

Kirk Miller: rm superscript kay

{{InfoboxLanguage
|Language = Hadza
|Autonym = ''Haza, hazane''
|Pronunciation = ɦad͜za
|Ethn15name = Hadza
|Countries = Tanzania
|OfficialLg = none
|OLACname = Hadza
|WALSLoc = 3°45′ S, 35°10′ E
|Speakers = 1,000
|Family = [[isolate]]
|Genus = Hadza
|WritingSyst = none
|ISO3 = hts
}}

Hadza is a language isolate of Tanzania.

=== Location and Speakers ===
Hadza is spoken along the entire eastern shore of alkaline Lake Eyasi, which lies at the base of the Serengeti Plateau in Tanzania, from Mount Oldeani in the north to the Isanzu agricultural areas in the south.

There is a small population of Hadza to the west of the lake, in ''Dunduina'' /duƞtuina/<ref>This article uses the old IPA letter for a moraic nasal, ⟨ƞ⟩, which was retired because it has no specific phonetic value. In Hadza, the moraic nasal is homorganic with a following consonant.</ref> 'Sukumaland', but their number seems to be decreasing and many only speak Sukuma and Swahili.

There are approximately 1,000 speakers of Hadza, most now bilingual in Swahili. Other second languages include [[Isanzu]] in the south, [[Sukuma]] in the west, and to a lesser degree [[Datooga]] in the center (e.g. near the Yaeda Valley) and [[Iraqw]] on the margins of Iraqw territory. The northern Hadza area, around the town of Mangola, was largely monolingual until the introduction of Standard Swahili after independence.

As of 2005, about 40% of Hadza lived as full-time hunter-gatherers, and language transmission was robust in the areas east of the lake, but since then there have been reports of children speaking Swahili east of the lake, perhaps due to the influx of ''Dunduinabee'' abandoning their territory in the west.

=== Classification ===
Hadza is a [[language isolate]]. Greenberg classified it as [[Khoisan]] due to its use of [[click consonant]]s. If it were not for the clicks, it's likely that Hadza would have been classified as [[Cushitic]].

=== Dialects ===
There do not appear to be any dialects of Hadza, presumably due to the mobility of its speakers. There are some regional differences of vocabulary, however, and speakers note that there are many more Bantu loans in the south.

=== Name ===
"Hadza" is the most common name in the literature. ''Haza'' /ɦad͜za/ simply means 'human being'. The derivative "Hadzane" (/ɦad͜zane/ 'in the manner of the people') is sometimes encountered as the name of the language. The feminine plural ''hazabee'' /ɦad͜zabeʔe/ may be used for the people, though it is usually spelled "Hadzabe" due to devoicing of the final vowel. (The feminine is the inclusive gender in the plural.) "Hadzapi" is the masculine copular form ''hazaphii'' /ɦad͜zapʰiʔi/. "Hatza" and "Hatsa" are older German spellings.

"Tindiga" is from the Swahili name, ''watindiga'' 'people of the marsh grass', presumably named for the large spring in Mangola. The form ''wahadza'', ''kihadza'' is found instead of ''watindiga'', ''kitindiga'' in recent Swahili publications, but the Hadza do not consider ''watindiga'' to be pejorative. "Kindiga" may be a cognate from one of the local Bantu languages. "Kangeju" (pronounced ''Kangeyu'') is an obsolete German name of unclear origin. The name "Wahi" (pronounced ''Vahi'') found in Kohl-Larsen is a Sukuma name for the Hadza.

=== Orthography ===
Hadza does not have a written tradition. Two orthographies have seen recent use: the phonetic transcription of Tucker, Bryan & Woodburn (1977), used with some modification by Woodburn and other anthropologists, and the practical orthography of Anyawire et al. (2013). As it is based on the IPA, the Woodburn transcription is more accessible to linguists, while the Anyawire orthography is closer to those of Sandawe and other written languages of Tanzania. There is evidently some political controversy over the choice of orthography, with Hadza reporting they have been told that if they use the Anyawire orthography they will loose their land. There are two motivations for the Anyawire orthography: the perception that the IPA click letters of the Woodburn transcription portray the Hadza language as bizarre, when the Hadza people already have difficulties with being marginalized and a perception that they are not proper human beings, and the practical issue that the ubiquitous apostrophe of the Woodburn transcription makes it impractical for extended use. The apostrophes are generally omitted by those Hadza who have learned it, with the resulting texts often being unintelligible even to their authors; when the apostrophes are written, they greatly slow down the pace of writing. In the Anyawire orthography, doubled consonants and vowels are used for glottalized/ejective consonants and glottal stop, with the apostrophe only being used for the Swahili convention of ⟨ngʼ⟩ for /ŋ/.

The Anyawire orthography is used alongside the IPA in this article for accessibility with the dictionary. For clarity, an apostrophe will be retained for glottal stop between unlike vowels, for e.g. ''ae'' /ae/ vs ''aʼe'' /aʔe/. In practice, the Hadza are more likely to use epenthetic glides between vowels in hiatus, for e.g. ''aye'' /ae/ and ''ae'' /aʔe/.

=== Phonology ===
Hadza syllable structure is limited to CVN in native words. There are no vowel-initial roots, unless ''h'' is analyzed as an allophone of zero. Syllable-coda N surfaces as a homorganic nasal when a following consonant has a place of articulation to assimilate to, and as nasalization of the vowel before a glottal consonant (glottal stop and ''h''/zero) and pre-pausa. Coda N appears allophonically before voiced or glottalized nasal clicks. A moraic (syllabic?) nasal is also found word-initially in loans, where it may have a different pitch than the following vowel; such nasals are analyzed as NCV sequences rather than as a series of prenasalized consonants. Initial NCV may also occur when the initial hV syllable of an hVCV- word is elided and the C2 is a glottalized nasal click.

==== Stress and tone ====
Salient stress and pitch is not restricted to a particular syllable. There are no known minimal pairs, grammatical or lexical, for stress or tone. Pairs claimed in the literature have turned out to either not be distinct or not be minimal pairs. It may be that some loanwords retain their tone from their source language.

==== Vowels ====
There are five phonemic vowels, which are close to cardinal [a e i o u].

{| class="wikitable" style=text-align:center
|+Hadza vowels
| style="background: white" |
! Front
! Central
! Back
|-
! High
| i || || u
|-
! Mid
| e || || o
|-
! Low
| || a ||
|}

Phonetic nasal vowels, which are not common except before a consonant, are here analyzed as /VN/.

Phonetic long vowels are often sequences, as in ''kaha'' [kaː] ~ [kaɦa] 'to climb'. In some words, however, there is no allomorph with [ɦ], as in ''bôko'' [boːko] 'she' (forms a minimal pair with ''boko'' [boko] 'to be ill'). There is no known minimal set to establish long /Vː/ as distinct from a /VV/ sequence.

The mid vowels /e, o/ tend to rise when a high vowel, /i, u/, occurs in the following syllable, and may merge with /i, u/ in that position. However, such assimilation tends to be optional, even in suffixed pronouns such as ''onebii'' [ʔone̝biʔi] ~ ''unibii'' [ʔunibiʔi] 'we' (masculine, inclusive).

/u/ is relatively uncommon except in loans or due to vowel-height assimilation, and does not occur in grammatical morphemes unless the morpheme has a second syllable with vowel /i/.

Vowels tend to devoice pre-pausa and after a voiceless consonant. In the highly frequent pattern of word-final -V₁ʔV₁ (where the two vowels are the same, found in half of all grammatical suffixes and clitics though not frequently elsewhere), the vowel and preceding glottal stop tend to elide completely, whether pre-pausa or before another word.

==== Consonants ====
Hadza has at least 50 productive syllable onsets and several more marginal consonants.

{| class="wikitable" style=text-align:center
|+Principal Hadza consonants (Parentheses: loans. Dark background: may follow a nasal coda.)
! rowspan=2 colspan=2 |
! rowspan=2 | Labial
! rowspan=2 colspan=2 | (Denti-) alveolar
! rowspan=2 | (Post-) alveolar
! rowspan=2 | Palatal
! colspan=2 | Post-velar
! rowspan=2 | Glottal/ placeless
|- class=small
! plain
! labialized
|-
! rowspan=4 | Click
! Aspirated
|
| colspan=2 style="background: silver" | ǀʰ
| style="background: silver" |ǃʰ
| style="background: silver" |ǁʰ
| colspan=3 rowspan=4 style="background: white" |
|-
! Tenuis
|
| colspan=2 style="background: silver" | ǀ
| style="background: silver" |ǃ
| style="background: silver" |ǁ
|-
! Voiced nasal
|
| colspan=2 | ⁿǀ
| ⁿǃ
| ⁿǁ
|-
! Glottalized nasal
|
| colspan=2 | ⁿǀˀ
| ⁿǃˀ
| ⁿǁˀ
|-
! rowspan=5 | Plosive / affricate
|-
! Ejective
| pʼ
| colspan=2| t͜sʼ
| t͜ʃʼ
| c͜ʎ̥˔ʼ
| k͜xʼ
| k͜xʷʼ
| style="background: white" |
|-
! Aspirated
| style="background: silver" |pʰ
| style="background: silver" |tʰ
| style="background: silver" |t͜sʰ
| style="background: silver" |t͜ʃʰ
| c͜ʎ̥˔ʰ
| style="background: silver" |kʰ
| style="background: silver" |kʷʰ
|
|-
! Tenuis
| style="background: silver" |p
| style="background: silver" |t
| style="background: silver" |t͜s
| style="background: silver" |t͜ʃ
| c͜ʎ̥˔
| style="background: silver" |k
| style="background: silver" |kʷ
| style="background: silver" |ʔ
|-
! Voiced
| b
| (d)
| (d͜z)
| (d͜ʒ)
|
| (ɡ)
| (ɡʷ)
| style="background: white" |
|-
! colspan=2| Nasal
| m
| colspan=2| n
| colspan=2| (ɲ)
| (ŋ)
| (ŋʷ)
| //ƞ//
|-
! colspan=2 | Fricative
| (fʷ)
| ɬ
| s
| ʃ
|
|
|
|
|-
! colspan=2 | Sonorant
|
| colspan=2 | ɺ
|
| j
|
| w
| style="background: silver" | ɦ (zero?)
|}

Consonants in parentheses are thought to be loans, though the voiced obstruents at least are well-integrated and may be spreading to native roots.

Consonants with a grey background may follow a coda nasal. (That is, they may be C2 in a CVNCV pattern.) /ǃ/ and /ǁ/ are not attested in this position, but it is suspected these are accidental gaps, given that only two roots are known with /ǀ/ after a nasal and that the gaps have not yet been investigated in the field.

The voice-onset time of consonants is reduced after a nasal coda: tenuis consonants may be partially or completely voiced, and the aspiration of aspirated consonants may be reduced or lost. This is true of clicks as well as of plosives and affricates. A /b/~/p/ distinction has not been found in this position despite /b/ being native.

Aspirated consonants may only be distinct in the first several syllables of a word. Many speakers distinguish aspirated plosives in only a few words, but maintain a robust distinction for affricates and clicks. The reason for this asymmetry is unknown.

The glottalized nasal clicks surface as e.g. [ǃʔ] post-pausa and often [ŋ͡nʔǃ] intervocalically. Accounts differ as to whether there is voiceless nasal airflow in post-pausa position.

Aspirated clicks may have a delayed and clearly audible posterior release, e.g. [ǃʰ] ~ [ǃkʰ]. This release has the same post-velar articulation as the k-series of plosives.

The ǃ-clicks tend to be weakly articulated, though, so far as is known, not slapped as has been reported from Sandawe. When intervocalic, /ⁿǃ/ may surface as or nearly as [ŋ͡n]. The ǁ-clicks, on the other hand, are typically quite salient.

Among the ejectives, /pʼ/ is uncommon. Many vary between affricate and fricative realizations. [sʼ, ʃʼ, xʼ, xʷʼ] have been noted. /k͜xʼ/ and /k͜xʷʼ/ have plosive allophones [kʼ, kʷʼ], and at least /k͜xʼ/ has a lateral allophone [k͜ʟ̝̊ʼ]. /t͜sʼ/ may be the ejective correlate of both the /t/ and /t͜s/ series of pulmonic consonants.

The palatal lateral affricates may be pronounced with an alveolar onset, e.g. [t͜ʎ̥˔], or without involving the front of the tongue, e.g. [c͜ʎ̥˔]. Speakers express no preference when hearing these articulations. The fricative /ɬ/ is alveolar; a palatal articulation is not accepted. Given that the fricative may be pronounced as an affricate in some prosodic situations, this means that there is a three-way phonetic place contrast among laterals: [t͜ɬ] vs [t͜ʎ̥˔ ~ c͜ʎ̥˔] and [t͜ʎ̥˔ʼ ~ c͜ʎ̥˔ʼ] vs [k͜ʟ̝̊ʼ].

/ɺ/ is typically realized as [l] post-pausa and [ɾ] elsewhere, though [ɺ] is not uncommon. It also tends toward [l] when it occurs as both C1 and C2, as in /ɺoɺa/ (sp. rabbit).

[ɦ] and zero may be allophones. If so, and given that vowel-initial suffixes may elide a stem-final vowel, it would be simplest to posit that the phoneme is zero and [ɦ] an allophone of zero, rather than that /ɦ/ is elided under some conditions. A predictive conditioning environment for the presence or absence of [ɦ] has not been discovered, but prosody may play a role; even vowel-initial suffixes and clitics may be realized with an initial [ɦ] when given contrastive prosody. Assimilation or bilingualism may be involved in the case of loanwords. For instance, an Isanzu loan for 'snake' was recorded as ''ihato'' /ʔiɦato/ at the beginning of the 20th century (and perhaps in an Isanzu-biligual area) but as ''iyato'' /ʔiato/ at the beginning of the 21st century in Mangola.

The glides /j/ and /w/ are not distinctive next to front (/i, e/) and back (/o, u/) vowels, respectively. It is possible that they are allophones of /i/ and /u/. When they occur word-initially, purported /jV, wV/ often appear as [ʔijV] and [ʔuwV]. This is true even of a ubiquitous sequential auxiliary (''yamo'' [jamo] ~ ''iamo'' [ʔiamo] in the 3msg posterior (past?) tense). /j/ does however occur in two object suffixes where such variation has not been noted. In the anthropological and linguistic literature, glides are often written between unlike vowels. For example, the 3msg non-past copula clitic ''-ha'' /ɦa/ is often transcribed 'ya' after a front vowel and 'wa' after a back vowel.

;Marginal consonants

A labial click, variously reported as [ⁿʘʷ] or [ⁿʘˀ], is found in a single root, ''mcwa-'', that is mimetic for a kiss and often made with an accompanying kiss to the hand. It may be that it is allophonic with a dental click in the root ''ncua-'' /ⁿǀua/ 'kiss'.

A trill [r] is used by some speakers in some words, perhaps reflecting the pronunciation of the word in the language it was borrowed from. It is replaced with /ɺ/ by other speakers.

An implosive [ɓ] is used by some speakers in some words, perhaps reflecting the pronunciation of the word in the source language. It is replaced with /b/ by other speakers. Other implosives have not been noted.

A fricative [x] occurs lexicalized in an expletive, ''ahho'' [ʔaxo], where otherwise the root is ''akho'' /ʔakʰo/ 'genitals'. (/kʰ/ is commonly realized as [kx].)

;Phonotactics
All clicks within a root must be the same, as in /ǀikiɺiƞǀa/ 'pinkie'. Although there is a tendency for clicks and ejectives to occur as C1, in a quarter of click words the click occurs as C2.

Clicks and ejectives may co-occur, but always in that order. When they co-occur, there appears to be some sibilant harmony, with a strong tendency for /t͜sʼ/ to occur with denti-alveolar clicks and for /c͜ʎ̥˔ʼ/ to occur with lateral clicks.

When an aspirated consonant occurs more than once in a word, the first tends to deaspirate (Grassmann's/Katupha's Law, though generally optional). A coda N may block deaspiration, as in the allomorphs /peǃeǃʰe/ ~ /peƞǃʰeƞǃʰe/ 'to rush'. NC sequences may loose their nasal segment as well, as in /ƞtʰaɺaƞtʰaɺaʔabiʔi/ ~ /taɺaƞtʰaɺaʔabiʔi/ '(arrow) barbs'. It is not clear to what extent these patterns hold with two different aspirated consonants.

===Swadesh lists===
Only roots are given. For example, the word for 'name', given as the root ''akhana'' below, is actually feminine plural ''akhanabee''.

====Wichmann & Holman basic 40-word list (ordered by stability)====

#louse ''ccamazzi'' /ⁿǀˀamat͜sʼi/<ref>cf. ''ccezze'' /ⁿǀˀet͜s’e/ 'tick'</ref>
#two ''piye'' /pie/, ''konxa'' /koⁿǁa/ (verb)
#water ''ati'' /ʔati/ (mpl; msg = 'rain, river')
#ear ''hajjapitchi'' /ɦat͜ʃ’apit͜ʃʰi/<ref>from ''hazzape'' /ɦat͜s’ape/ 'leaf'?</ref>
#to die ''taxxi'' /taⁿǁˀi/, ''misi'' /misi/ (Datooga?)
#I *one /ʔone/, */-ko/<ref>If *-ko-a > /-kʷa/ rather than *-kʷa-ʔV > /-koʔo/.</ref>
#liver ''xxe'' /ⁿǁˀe/
#eye ''akhwa'' /ʔakʷʰa/
#hand, arm ''ukhwa'' /ʔukʷʰa/
#hear ''nxaʼe'' /ⁿǁaʔe/
#tree ''zziti'' /t͜s’iti/
#fish ''ccama'' /ⁿǀˀama/, ''ccara'' /ⁿǀˀaɺa/
#name ''akhana'' /ʔakʰana/
#stone ''haqqa'' /ɦaⁿǃˀa/
#tooth ''aha'' /ʔaɦa/
#breast ''iriba'' /ʔiɺiba/ ('breasts, milk'. Cushitic); ''ggazza'' /k͜x’at͜s’a/ ('flesh at sternum')
#thou ''the'' /tʰe/, /-en-/ (m), /-n-/ (f)
#path ''yeke'' /jeke/
#bone ''midla'' /mic͜ʎ̥˔’a/ (cf. Dahalo)
#tongue ''ncata'' /ⁿǀata/
#skin ''ahu'' /ʔaɦu/
#night ''zzifi'' /t͜s’ifi/ (m; f = 'day')
#leaf ''hazzape'' /ɦat͜s’ape/
#rain = 'water' (msg = 'rain, river'; mpl = 'water')
#kill ''xô'' /ǁoː/
#blood ''athama'' /ʔatʰama/
#horn ''roo'' /ɺoʔo/
#person ''haza'' /ɦad͜za/ (human), ''unu'' /ʔunu/ (person)
#knee ''guringuri'' /ɡuɺiƞɡuɺi/ ~ ''gurunguri'' /ɡuɺuƞɡuɺi/ (Cushitic? pan-African)
#one ''itchâme'' /ʔit͜ʃʰaːme/
#nose ''intawe'' /ʔiƞtʰawe/
#full ''ggaʼe'' /k͜x’aʔe/, *cco- /ⁿǀˀo-/
#come ''za'' /d͜za/ (Bantu), ''botco'' /bot͜ʃo/ (stem of imperative)
#star ''ntsa'' /ƞt͜sʰa/, ''sa'' /sa/ (Cushitic?)<ref>Anyawire et al. (2013) only found ''ntsa''. Tucker et al. (1977) report ''sa'' 'star', and Woodburn confirms the form he knows does not have a nasal onset. /ƞ/ + /sa/ would generate /ƞt͜sʰa/. Indeed, speakers do not care if the latter is written ''ntsa'' or ''nsa''. There are several Cushitic loanwords that have an onset that varies as C ~ NC in Hadza where the source language is only reconstructed with C.</ref>
#mountain ''xxudle'' /ⁿǁˀuc͜ʎ̥˔’e/
#fire ''zzoko'' /t͜s’oko/
#we (exclusive) ''ô'' /ʔoː/, /-j-/
#to drink ''fa'' /fʷa/
#to see ''chî'' /ǀʰiː/ ~ ''cî'' /ǀiː/
#bark ''heggwa'' /ɦek͜xʷ’a/
#new ''zana'' /d͜zana/<ref>from ''za'' 'come'?</ref>
#dog ''xhaano'' /ǁʰaʔano/, ''tîngi'' /tiːƞki/
#sun ''isho'' /ʔiʃo/

====Other Swadesh-100 words====

===Notes===
<references/>

===Bibliography===

* Mariamu Anyawire, G.G. Bala, Kirk Miller & Bonny Sands (2013). ''A Hadza Lexicon'' (ms). Kirk Miller, ed.
* Roger Blench (2008). [https://web.archive.org/web/20110721180216/http://www.rogerblench.info/Language%20data/Khoesan/Blench%20paper%20Riezlern%202008.pdf Hadza Animal Names.] Paper presented at the 3rd International Symposium on Khoisan Languages and Linguistics, Riezlern, 7–9 July 2008.
* Niklas Edenmyr (2004). [https://web.archive.org/web/20070706040409/http://www.african.gu.se/aa/pdfs/aa04003.pdf The semantics of Hadza gender assignment: a few notes from the field.] ''Africa & Asia'', no. 4, Department of Oriental and African languages, Göteborg University, 3–19.
* Edward Elderkin (1978). Loans in Hadza: internal evidence from consonants. ''Occasional Papers'' 3, Dar es Salaam.
* Peter Ladefoged, Ian Maddieson & Bonny Sands, Bonny (1991). [http://archive.phonetics.ucla.edu/Language/HTS/hts.html Hadza wordlist and sound files]. UCLA Phonetics Lab Archive.
* ———— (1993). [https://www.academia.edu/17743030/The_phonetic_structures_of_Hadza The Phonetic Structures of Hadza.] In [http://repositories.cdlib.org/uclaling/wpp/No84/ ''UCLA Working Papers in Phonetics'' No. 84: ''Fieldwork Studies in Targeted Languages'',] 67–87.
* Kirk Miller (2008). [https://www.academia.edu/36533859/Hadza_grammar_notes Hadza Grammar Notes.] Paper presented at the 3rd International Symposium on Khoisan Languages and Linguistics, Riezlern, 7–9 July 2008.
* ———— (2009). [https://www.academia.edu/36533860/Highlights_of_Hadza_Fieldwork Highlights of Hadza fieldwork.] Paper presented at the 83rd Annual Meeting of the Linguistic Society of America, San Francisco, 8–11 January 2009.
* Bonny Sands (1998). The Linguistic Relationship between Hadza and Khoisan. In Schladt, Matthias (ed.) ''Language, Identity, and Conceptualization among the Khoisan'' (Quellen zur Khoisan-Forschung Vol. 15), Köln: Rüdiger Köppe, 265–283.
* ———— (2013). Phonetics and phonology: Hadza; Tonology: Hadza; Morphology: Hadza; Syntax: Hadza. In Rainer Vossen, ed., ''The Khoesan Languages''. Oxford: Routledge.
*Sergei Starostin. [http://starling.rinet.ru/cgi-bin/response.cgi?root=new100&morpho=0&basename=new100\hdz\hdz&limit=-1 Hadza basic lexicon.] Global Lexicostatistical Database. [much of the parsing is speculation, and Bleek's posthumous data is unreliable]
* A.N. Tucker, M.A. Bryan & James Woodburn as co-author for Hadza (1977). The East African Click Languages: A Phonetic Comparison. In J.G. Moehlig, Franz Rottland, Bernd Heine, eds, ''Zur Sprachgeschichte und Ethnohistorie in Afrika.'' Berlin: Dietrich Diener Verlag.

[[Category:En]]
[[Category:Single language]]

Hadza

2019-03-05T22:34:58Z

Kirk Miller: replace common superscript engma with stricter IPA superscript en

{{InfoboxLanguage
|Language = Hadza
|Autonym = ''Haza, hazane''
|Pronunciation = ɦad͜za
|Ethn15name = Hadza
|Countries = Tanzania
|OfficialLg = none
|OLACname = Hadza
|WALSLoc = 3°45′ S, 35°10′ E
|Speakers = 1,000
|Family = [[isolate]]
|Genus = Hadza
|WritingSyst = none
|ISO3 = hts
}}

Hadza is a language isolate of Tanzania.

=== Location and Speakers ===
Hadza is spoken along the entire eastern shore of alkaline Lake Eyasi, which lies at the base of the Serengeti Plateau in Tanzania, from Mount Oldeani in the north to the Isanzu agricultural areas in the south.

There is a small population of Hadza to the west of the lake, in ''Dunduina'' /duƞtuina/<ref>This article uses the old IPA letter for a moraic nasal, ⟨ƞ⟩, which was retired because it has no specific phonetic value. In Hadza, the moraic nasal is homorganic with a following consonant.</ref> 'Sukumaland', but their number seems to be decreasing and many only speak Sukuma and Swahili.

There are approximately 1,000 speakers of Hadza, most now bilingual in Swahili. Other second languages include [[Isanzu]] in the south, [[Sukuma]] in the west, and to a lesser degree [[Datooga]] in the center (e.g. near the Yaeda Valley) and [[Iraqw]] on the margins of Iraqw territory. The northern Hadza area, around the town of Mangola, was largely monolingual until the introduction of Standard Swahili after independence.

As of 2005, about 40% of Hadza lived as full-time hunter-gatherers, and language transmission was robust in the areas east of the lake, but since then there have been reports of children speaking Swahili east of the lake, perhaps due to the influx of ''Dunduinabee'' abandoning their territory in the west.

=== Classification ===
Hadza is a [[language isolate]]. Greenberg classified it as [[Khoisan]] due to its use of [[click consonant]]s. If it were not for the clicks, it's likely that Hadza would have been classified as [[Cushitic]].

=== Dialects ===
There do not appear to be any dialects of Hadza, presumably due to the mobility of its speakers. There are some regional differences of vocabulary, however, and speakers note that there are many more Bantu loans in the south.

=== Name ===
"Hadza" is the most common name in the literature. ''Haza'' /ɦad͜za/ simply means 'human being'. The derivative "Hadzane" (/ɦad͜zane/ 'in the manner of the people') is sometimes encountered as the name of the language. The feminine plural ''hazabee'' /ɦad͜zabeʔe/ may be used for the people, though it is usually spelled "Hadzabe" due to devoicing of the final vowel. (The feminine is the inclusive gender in the plural.) "Hadzapi" is the masculine copular form ''hazaphii'' /ɦad͜zapʰiʔi/. "Hatza" and "Hatsa" are older German spellings.

"Tindiga" is from the Swahili name, ''watindiga'' 'people of the marsh grass', presumably named for the large spring in Mangola. The form ''wahadza'', ''kihadza'' is found instead of ''watindiga'', ''kitindiga'' in recent Swahili publications, but the Hadza do not consider ''watindiga'' to be pejorative. "Kindiga" may be a cognate from one of the local Bantu languages. "Kangeju" (pronounced ''Kangeyu'') is an obsolete German name of unclear origin. The name "Wahi" (pronounced ''Vahi'') found in Kohl-Larsen is a Sukuma name for the Hadza.

=== Orthography ===
Hadza does not have a written tradition. Two orthographies have seen recent use: the phonetic transcription of Tucker, Bryan & Woodburn (1977), used with some modification by Woodburn and other anthropologists, and the practical orthography of Anyawire et al. (2013). As it is based on the IPA, the Woodburn transcription is more accessible to linguists, while the Anyawire orthography is closer to those of Sandawe and other written languages of Tanzania. There is evidently some political controversy over the choice of orthography, with Hadza reporting they have been told that if they use the Anyawire orthography they will loose their land. There are two motivations for the Anyawire orthography: the perception that the IPA click letters of the Woodburn transcription portray the Hadza language as bizarre, when the Hadza people already have difficulties with being marginalized and a perception that they are not proper human beings, and the practical issue that the ubiquitous apostrophe of the Woodburn transcription makes it impractical for extended use. The apostrophes are generally omitted by those Hadza who have learned it, with the resulting texts often being unintelligible even to their authors; when the apostrophes are written, they greatly slow down the pace of writing. In the Anyawire orthography, doubled consonants and vowels are used for glottalized/ejective consonants and glottal stop, with the apostrophe only being used for the Swahili convention of ⟨ngʼ⟩ for /ŋ/.

The Anyawire orthography is used alongside the IPA in this article for accessibility with the dictionary. For clarity, an apostrophe will be retained for glottal stop between unlike vowels, for e.g. ''ae'' /ae/ vs ''aʼe'' /aʔe/. In practice, the Hadza are more likely to use epenthetic glides between vowels in hiatus, for e.g. ''aye'' /ae/ and ''ae'' /aʔe/.

=== Phonology ===
Hadza syllable structure is limited to CVN in native words. There are no vowel-initial roots, unless ''h'' is analyzed as an allophone of zero. Syllable-coda N surfaces as a homorganic nasal when a following consonant has a place of articulation to assimilate to, and as nasalization of the vowel before a glottal consonant (glottal stop and ''h''/zero) and pre-pausa. Coda N appears allophonically before voiced or glottalized nasal clicks. A moraic (syllabic?) nasal is also found word-initially in loans, where it may have a different pitch than the following vowel; such nasals are analyzed as NCV sequences rather than as a series of prenasalized consonants. Initial NCV may also occur when the initial hV syllable of an hVCV- word is elided and the C2 is a glottalized nasal click.

==== Stress and tone ====
Salient stress and pitch is not restricted to a particular syllable. There are no known minimal pairs, grammatical or lexical, for stress or tone. Pairs claimed in the literature have turned out to either not be distinct or not be minimal pairs. It may be that some loanwords retain their tone from their source language.

==== Vowels ====
There are five phonemic vowels, which are close to cardinal [a e i o u].

{| class="wikitable" style=text-align:center
|+Hadza vowels
| style="background: white" |
! Front
! Central
! Back
|-
! High
| i || || u
|-
! Mid
| e || || o
|-
! Low
| || a ||
|}

Phonetic nasal vowels, which are not common except before a consonant, are here analyzed as /VN/.

Phonetic long vowels are often sequences, as in ''kaha'' [kaː] ~ [kaɦa] 'to climb'. In some words, however, there is no allomorph with [ɦ], as in ''bôko'' [boːko] 'she' (forms a minimal pair with ''boko'' [boko] 'to be ill'). There is no known minimal set to establish long /Vː/ as distinct from a /VV/ sequence.

The mid vowels /e, o/ tend to rise when a high vowel, /i, u/, occurs in the following syllable, and may merge with /i, u/ in that position. However, such assimilation tends to be optional, even in suffixed pronouns such as ''onebii'' [ʔone̝biʔi] ~ ''unibii'' [ʔunibiʔi] 'we' (masculine, inclusive).

/u/ is relatively uncommon except in loans or due to vowel-height assimilation, and does not occur in grammatical morphemes unless the morpheme has a second syllable with vowel /i/.

Vowels tend to devoice pre-pausa and after a voiceless consonant. In the highly frequent pattern of word-final -V₁ʔV₁ (where the two vowels are the same, found in half of all grammatical suffixes and clitics though not frequently elsewhere), the vowel and preceding glottal stop tend to elide completely, whether pre-pausa or before another word.

==== Consonants ====
Hadza has at least 50 productive syllable onsets and several more marginal consonants.

{| class="wikitable" style=text-align:center
|+Principal Hadza consonants (Parentheses: loans. Dark background: may follow a nasal coda.)
! rowspan=2 colspan=2 |
! rowspan=2 | Labial
! rowspan=2 colspan=2 | (Denti-) alveolar
! rowspan=2 | (Post-) alveolar
! rowspan=2 | Palatal
! colspan=2 | Post-velar
! rowspan=2 | Glottal/ placeless
|- class=small
! plain
! labialized
|-
! rowspan=4 | Click
! Aspirated
|
| colspan=2 style="background: silver" | ᵏǀʰ
| style="background: silver" |ᵏǃʰ
| style="background: silver" |ᵏǁʰ
| colspan=3 rowspan=4 style="background: white" |
|-
! Tenuis
|
| colspan=2 style="background: silver" | ᵏǀ
| style="background: silver" |ᵏǃ
| style="background: silver" |ᵏǁ
|-
! Voiced nasal
|
| colspan=2 | ⁿǀ
| ⁿǃ
| ⁿǁ
|-
! Glottalized nasal
|
| colspan=2 | ⁿǀˀ
| ⁿǃˀ
| ⁿǁˀ
|-
! rowspan=5 | Plosive / affricate
|-
! Ejective
| pʼ
| colspan=2| t͜sʼ
| t͜ʃʼ
| c͜ʎ̥˔ʼ
| k͜xʼ
| k͜xʷʼ
| style="background: white" |
|-
! Aspirated
| style="background: silver" |pʰ
| style="background: silver" |tʰ
| style="background: silver" |t͜sʰ
| style="background: silver" |t͜ʃʰ
| c͜ʎ̥˔ʰ
| style="background: silver" |kʰ
| style="background: silver" |kʷʰ
|
|-
! Tenuis
| style="background: silver" |p
| style="background: silver" |t
| style="background: silver" |t͜s
| style="background: silver" |t͜ʃ
| c͜ʎ̥˔
| style="background: silver" |k
| style="background: silver" |kʷ
| style="background: silver" |ʔ
|-
! Voiced
| b
| (d)
| (d͜z)
| (d͜ʒ)
|
| (ɡ)
| (ɡʷ)
| style="background: white" |
|-
! colspan=2| Nasal
| m
| colspan=2| n
| colspan=2| (ɲ)
| (ŋ)
| (ŋʷ)
| //ƞ//
|-
! colspan=2 | Fricative
| (fʷ)
| ɬ
| s
| ʃ
|
|
|
|
|-
! colspan=2 | Sonorant
|
| colspan=2 | ɺ
|
| j
|
| w
| style="background: silver" | ɦ (zero?)
|}

Consonants in parentheses are thought to be loans, though the voiced obstruents at least are well-integrated and may be spreading to native roots.

Consonants with a grey background may follow a coda nasal. (That is, they may be C2 in a CVNCV pattern.) /ᵏǃ/ and /ᵏǁ/ are not attested in this position, but it is suspected these are accidental gaps, given that only two roots are known with /ᵏǀ/ after a nasal and that the gaps have not yet been investigated in the field.

The voice-onset time of consonants is reduced after a nasal coda: tenuis consonants may be partially or completely voiced, and the aspiration of aspirated consonants may be reduced or lost. This is true of clicks as well as of plosives and affricates. A /b/~/p/ distinction has not been found in this position despite /b/ being native.

Aspirated consonants may only be distinct in the first several syllables of a word. Many speakers distinguish aspirated plosives in only a few words, but maintain a robust distinction for affricates and clicks. The reason for this asymmetry is unknown.

The glottalized nasal clicks surface as e.g. [ǃʔ] post-pausa and often [ŋ͡nʔǃ] intervocalically. Accounts differ as to whether there is voiceless nasal airflow in post-pausa position.

Aspirated clicks may have a delayed and clearly audible posterior release, e.g. [ᵏǃʰ] ~ [ᵏǃkʰ]. This release has the same post-velar articulation as the k-series of plosives.

The ǃ-clicks tend to be weakly articulated, though, so far as is known, not slapped as has been reported from Sandawe. When intervocalic, /ⁿǃ/ may surface as or nearly as [ŋ͡n]. The ǁ-clicks, on the other hand, are typically quite salient.

Among the ejectives, /pʼ/ is uncommon. Many vary between affricate and fricative realizations. [sʼ, ʃʼ, xʼ, xʷʼ] have been noted. /k͜xʼ/ and /k͜xʷʼ/ have plosive allophones [kʼ, kʷʼ], and at least /k͜xʼ/ has a lateral allophone [k͜ʟ̝̊ʼ]. /t͜sʼ/ may be the ejective correlate of both the /t/ and /t͜s/ series of pulmonic consonants.

The palatal lateral affricates may be pronounced with an alveolar onset, e.g. [t͜ʎ̥˔], or without involving the front of the tongue, e.g. [c͜ʎ̥˔]. Speakers express no preference when hearing these articulations. The fricative /ɬ/ is alveolar; a palatal articulation is not accepted. Given that the fricative may be pronounced as an affricate in some prosodic situations, this means that there is a three-way phonetic place contrast among laterals: [t͜ɬ] vs [t͜ʎ̥˔ ~ c͜ʎ̥˔] and [t͜ʎ̥˔ʼ ~ c͜ʎ̥˔ʼ] vs [k͜ʟ̝̊ʼ].

/ɺ/ is typically realized as [l] post-pausa and [ɾ] elsewhere, though [ɺ] is not uncommon. It also tends toward [l] when it occurs as both C1 and C2, as in /ɺoɺa/ (sp. rabbit).

[ɦ] and zero may be allophones. If so, and given that vowel-initial suffixes may elide a stem-final vowel, it would be simplest to posit that the phoneme is zero and [ɦ] an allophone of zero, rather than that /ɦ/ is elided under some conditions. A predictive conditioning environment for the presence or absence of [ɦ] has not been discovered, but prosody may play a role; even vowel-initial suffixes and clitics may be realized with an initial [ɦ] when given contrastive prosody. Assimilation or bilingualism may be involved in the case of loanwords. For instance, an Isanzu loan for 'snake' was recorded as ''ihato'' /ʔiɦato/ at the beginning of the 20th century (and perhaps in an Isanzu-biligual area) but as ''iyato'' /ʔiato/ at the beginning of the 21st century in Mangola.

The glides /j/ and /w/ are not distinctive next to front (/i, e/) and back (/o, u/) vowels, respectively. It is possible that they are allophones of /i/ and /u/. When they occur word-initially, purported /jV, wV/ often appear as [ʔijV] and [ʔuwV]. This is true even of a ubiquitous sequential auxiliary (''yamo'' [jamo] ~ ''iamo'' [ʔiamo] in the 3msg posterior (past?) tense). /j/ does however occur in two object suffixes where such variation has not been noted. In the anthropological and linguistic literature, glides are often written between unlike vowels. For example, the 3msg non-past copula clitic ''-ha'' /ɦa/ is often transcribed 'ya' after a front vowel and 'wa' after a back vowel.

;Marginal consonants

A labial click, variously reported as [ⁿʘʷ] or [ⁿʘˀ], is found in a single root, ''mcwa-'', that is mimetic for a kiss and often made with an accompanying kiss to the hand. It may be that it is allophonic with a dental click in the root ''ncua-'' /ⁿǀua/ 'kiss'.

A trill [r] is used by some speakers in some words, perhaps reflecting the pronunciation of the word in the language it was borrowed from. It is replaced with /ɺ/ by other speakers.

An implosive [ɓ] is used by some speakers in some words, perhaps reflecting the pronunciation of the word in the source language. It is replaced with /b/ by other speakers. Other implosives have not been noted.

A fricative [x] occurs lexicalized in an expletive, ''ahho'' [ʔaxo], where otherwise the root is ''akho'' /ʔakʰo/ 'genitals'. (/kʰ/ is commonly realized as [kx].)

;Phonotactics
All clicks within a root must be the same, as in /ᵏǀikiɺiƞᵏǀa/ 'pinkie'. Although there is a tendency for clicks and ejectives to occur as C1, in a quarter of click words the click occurs as C2.

Clicks and ejectives may co-occur, but always in that order. When they co-occur, there appears to be some sibilant harmony, with a strong tendency for /t͜sʼ/ to occur with denti-alveolar clicks and for /c͜ʎ̥˔ʼ/ to occur with lateral clicks.

When an aspirated consonant occurs more than once in a word, the first tends to deaspirate (Grassmann's/Katupha's Law, though generally optional). A coda N may block deaspiration, as in the allomorphs /peᵏǃeᵏǃʰe/ ~ /peƞᵏǃʰeƞᵏǃʰe/ 'to rush'. NC sequences may loose their nasal segment as well, as in /ƞtʰaɺaƞtʰaɺaʔabiʔi/ ~ /taɺaƞtʰaɺaʔabiʔi/ '(arrow) barbs'. It is not clear to what extent these patterns hold with two different aspirated consonants.

===Swadesh lists===
Only roots are given. For example, the word for 'name', given as the root ''akhana'' below, is actually feminine plural ''akhanabee''.

====Wichmann & Holman basic 40-word list (ordered by stability)====

#louse ''ccamazzi'' /ⁿǀˀamat͜sʼi/<ref>cf. ''ccezze'' /ⁿǀˀet͜s’e/ 'tick'</ref>
#two ''piye'' /pie/, ''konxa'' /koⁿǁa/ (verb)
#water ''ati'' /ʔati/ (mpl; msg = 'rain, river')
#ear ''hajjapitchi'' /ɦat͜ʃ’apit͜ʃʰi/<ref>from ''hazzape'' /ɦat͜s’ape/ 'leaf'?</ref>
#to die ''taxxi'' /taⁿǁˀi/, ''misi'' /misi/ (Datooga?)
#I *one /ʔone/, */-ko/<ref>If *-ko-a > /-kʷa/ rather than *-kʷa-ʔV > /-koʔo/.</ref>
#liver ''xxe'' /ⁿǁˀe/
#eye ''akhwa'' /ʔakʷʰa/
#hand, arm ''ukhwa'' /ʔukʷʰa/
#hear ''nxaʼe'' /ⁿǁaʔe/
#tree ''zziti'' /t͜s’iti/
#fish ''ccama'' /ⁿǀˀama/, ''ccara'' /ⁿǀˀaɺa/
#name ''akhana'' /ʔakʰana/
#stone ''haqqa'' /ɦaⁿǃˀa/
#tooth ''aha'' /ʔaɦa/
#breast ''iriba'' /ʔiɺiba/ ('breasts, milk'. Cushitic); ''ggazza'' /k͜x’at͜s’a/ ('flesh at sternum')
#thou ''the'' /tʰe/, /-en-/ (m), /-n-/ (f)
#path ''yeke'' /jeke/
#bone ''midla'' /mic͜ʎ̥˔’a/ (cf. Dahalo)
#tongue ''ncata'' /ⁿǀata/
#skin ''ahu'' /ʔaɦu/
#night ''zzifi'' /t͜s’ifi/ (m; f = 'day')
#leaf ''hazzape'' /ɦat͜s’ape/
#rain = 'water' (msg = 'rain, river'; mpl = 'water')
#kill ''xô'' /ᵏǁoː/
#blood ''athama'' /ʔatʰama/
#horn ''roo'' /ɺoʔo/
#person ''haza'' /ɦad͜za/ (human), ''unu'' /ʔunu/ (person)
#knee ''guringuri'' /ɡuɺiƞɡuɺi/ ~ ''gurunguri'' /ɡuɺuƞɡuɺi/ (Cushitic? pan-African)
#one ''itchâme'' /ʔit͜ʃʰaːme/
#nose ''intawe'' /ʔiƞtʰawe/
#full ''ggaʼe'' /k͜x’aʔe/, *cco- /ⁿǀˀo-/
#come ''za'' /d͜za/ (Bantu), ''botco'' /bot͜ʃo/ (stem of imperative)
#star ''ntsa'' /ƞt͜sʰa/, ''sa'' /sa/ (Cushitic?)<ref>Anyawire et al. (2013) only found ''ntsa''. Tucker et al. (1977) report ''sa'' 'star', and Woodburn confirms the form he knows does not have a nasal onset. /ƞ/ + /sa/ would generate /ƞt͜sʰa/. Indeed, speakers do not care if the latter is written ''ntsa'' or ''nsa''. There are several Cushitic loanwords that have an onset that varies as C ~ NC in Hadza where the source language is only reconstructed with C.</ref>
#mountain ''xxudle'' /ⁿǁˀuc͜ʎ̥˔’e/
#fire ''zzoko'' /t͜s’oko/
#we (exclusive) ''ô'' /ʔoː/, /-j-/
#to drink ''fa'' /fʷa/
#to see ''chî'' /ᵏǀʰiː/ ~ ''cî'' /ᵏǀiː/
#bark ''heggwa'' /ɦek͜xʷ’a/
#new ''zana'' /d͜zana/<ref>from ''za'' 'come'?</ref>
#dog ''xhaano'' /ᵏǁʰaʔano/, ''tîngi'' /tiːƞki/
#sun ''isho'' /ʔiʃo/

====Other Swadesh-100 words====

===Notes===
<references/>

===Bibliography===

* Mariamu Anyawire, G.G. Bala, Kirk Miller & Bonny Sands (2013). ''A Hadza Lexicon'' (ms). Kirk Miller, ed.
* Roger Blench (2008). [https://web.archive.org/web/20110721180216/http://www.rogerblench.info/Language%20data/Khoesan/Blench%20paper%20Riezlern%202008.pdf Hadza Animal Names.] Paper presented at the 3rd International Symposium on Khoisan Languages and Linguistics, Riezlern, 7–9 July 2008.
* Niklas Edenmyr (2004). [https://web.archive.org/web/20070706040409/http://www.african.gu.se/aa/pdfs/aa04003.pdf The semantics of Hadza gender assignment: a few notes from the field.] ''Africa & Asia'', no. 4, Department of Oriental and African languages, Göteborg University, 3–19.
* Edward Elderkin (1978). Loans in Hadza: internal evidence from consonants. ''Occasional Papers'' 3, Dar es Salaam.
* Peter Ladefoged, Ian Maddieson & Bonny Sands, Bonny (1991). [http://archive.phonetics.ucla.edu/Language/HTS/hts.html Hadza wordlist and sound files]. UCLA Phonetics Lab Archive.
* ———— (1993). [https://www.academia.edu/17743030/The_phonetic_structures_of_Hadza The Phonetic Structures of Hadza.] In [http://repositories.cdlib.org/uclaling/wpp/No84/ ''UCLA Working Papers in Phonetics'' No. 84: ''Fieldwork Studies in Targeted Languages'',] 67–87.
* Kirk Miller (2008). [https://www.academia.edu/36533859/Hadza_grammar_notes Hadza Grammar Notes.] Paper presented at the 3rd International Symposium on Khoisan Languages and Linguistics, Riezlern, 7–9 July 2008.
* ———— (2009). [https://www.academia.edu/36533860/Highlights_of_Hadza_Fieldwork Highlights of Hadza fieldwork.] Paper presented at the 83rd Annual Meeting of the Linguistic Society of America, San Francisco, 8–11 January 2009.
* Bonny Sands (1998). The Linguistic Relationship between Hadza and Khoisan. In Schladt, Matthias (ed.) ''Language, Identity, and Conceptualization among the Khoisan'' (Quellen zur Khoisan-Forschung Vol. 15), Köln: Rüdiger Köppe, 265–283.
* ———— (2013). Phonetics and phonology: Hadza; Tonology: Hadza; Morphology: Hadza; Syntax: Hadza. In Rainer Vossen, ed., ''The Khoesan Languages''. Oxford: Routledge.
*Sergei Starostin. [http://starling.rinet.ru/cgi-bin/response.cgi?root=new100&morpho=0&basename=new100\hdz\hdz&limit=-1 Hadza basic lexicon.] Global Lexicostatistical Database. [much of the parsing is speculation, and Bleek's posthumous data is unreliable]
* A.N. Tucker, M.A. Bryan & James Woodburn as co-author for Hadza (1977). The East African Click Languages: A Phonetic Comparison. In J.G. Moehlig, Franz Rottland, Bernd Heine, eds, ''Zur Sprachgeschichte und Ethnohistorie in Afrika.'' Berlin: Dietrich Diener Verlag.

[[Category:En]]
[[Category:Single language]]

Hadza

2019-03-05T22:29:20Z

Kirk Miller: /* Wichmann & Holman basic 40-word list (ordered by stability) */

{{InfoboxLanguage
|Language = Hadza
|Autonym = ''Haza, hazane''
|Pronunciation = ɦad͜za
|Ethn15name = Hadza
|Countries = Tanzania
|OfficialLg = none
|OLACname = Hadza
|WALSLoc = 3°45′ S, 35°10′ E
|Speakers = 1,000
|Family = [[isolate]]
|Genus = Hadza
|WritingSyst = none
|ISO3 = hts
}}

Hadza is a language isolate of Tanzania.

=== Location and Speakers ===
Hadza is spoken along the entire eastern shore of alkaline Lake Eyasi, which lies at the base of the Serengeti Plateau in Tanzania, from Mount Oldeani in the north to the Isanzu agricultural areas in the south.

There is a small population of Hadza to the west of the lake, in ''Dunduina'' /duƞtuina/<ref>This article uses the old IPA letter for a moraic nasal, ⟨ƞ⟩, which was retired because it has no specific phonetic value. In Hadza, the moraic nasal is homorganic with a following consonant.</ref> 'Sukumaland', but their number seems to be decreasing and many only speak Sukuma and Swahili.

There are approximately 1,000 speakers of Hadza, most now bilingual in Swahili. Other second languages include [[Isanzu]] in the south, [[Sukuma]] in the west, and to a lesser degree [[Datooga]] in the center (e.g. near the Yaeda Valley) and [[Iraqw]] on the margins of Iraqw territory. The northern Hadza area, around the town of Mangola, was largely monolingual until the introduction of Standard Swahili after independence.

As of 2005, about 40% of Hadza lived as full-time hunter-gatherers, and language transmission was robust in the areas east of the lake, but since then there have been reports of children speaking Swahili east of the lake, perhaps due to the influx of ''Dunduinabee'' abandoning their territory in the west.

=== Classification ===
Hadza is a [[language isolate]]. Greenberg classified it as [[Khoisan]] due to its use of [[click consonant]]s. If it were not for the clicks, it's likely that Hadza would have been classified as [[Cushitic]].

=== Dialects ===
There do not appear to be any dialects of Hadza, presumably due to the mobility of its speakers. There are some regional differences of vocabulary, however, and speakers note that there are many more Bantu loans in the south.

=== Name ===
"Hadza" is the most common name in the literature. ''Haza'' /ɦad͜za/ simply means 'human being'. The derivative "Hadzane" (/ɦad͜zane/ 'in the manner of the people') is sometimes encountered as the name of the language. The feminine plural ''hazabee'' /ɦad͜zabeʔe/ may be used for the people, though it is usually spelled "Hadzabe" due to devoicing of the final vowel. (The feminine is the inclusive gender in the plural.) "Hadzapi" is the masculine copular form ''hazaphii'' /ɦad͜zapʰiʔi/. "Hatza" and "Hatsa" are older German spellings.

"Tindiga" is from the Swahili name, ''watindiga'' 'people of the marsh grass', presumably named for the large spring in Mangola. The form ''wahadza'', ''kihadza'' is found instead of ''watindiga'', ''kitindiga'' in recent Swahili publications, but the Hadza do not consider ''watindiga'' to be pejorative. "Kindiga" may be a cognate from one of the local Bantu languages. "Kangeju" (pronounced ''Kangeyu'') is an obsolete German name of unclear origin. The name "Wahi" (pronounced ''Vahi'') found in Kohl-Larsen is a Sukuma name for the Hadza.

=== Orthography ===
Hadza does not have a written tradition. Two orthographies have seen recent use: the phonetic transcription of Tucker, Bryan & Woodburn (1977), used with some modification by Woodburn and other anthropologists, and the practical orthography of Anyawire et al. (2013). As it is based on the IPA, the Woodburn transcription is more accessible to linguists, while the Anyawire orthography is closer to those of Sandawe and other written languages of Tanzania. There is evidently some political controversy over the choice of orthography, with Hadza reporting they have been told that if they use the Anyawire orthography they will loose their land. There are two motivations for the Anyawire orthography: the perception that the IPA click letters of the Woodburn transcription portray the Hadza language as bizarre, when the Hadza people already have difficulties with being marginalized and a perception that they are not proper human beings, and the practical issue that the ubiquitous apostrophe of the Woodburn transcription makes it impractical for extended use. The apostrophes are generally omitted by those Hadza who have learned it, with the resulting texts often being unintelligible even to their authors; when the apostrophes are written, they greatly slow down the pace of writing. In the Anyawire orthography, doubled consonants and vowels are used for glottalized/ejective consonants and glottal stop, with the apostrophe only being used for the Swahili convention of ⟨ngʼ⟩ for /ŋ/.

The Anyawire orthography is used alongside the IPA in this article for accessibility with the dictionary. For clarity, an apostrophe will be retained for glottal stop between unlike vowels, for e.g. ''ae'' /ae/ vs ''aʼe'' /aʔe/. In practice, the Hadza are more likely to use epenthetic glides between vowels in hiatus, for e.g. ''aye'' /ae/ and ''ae'' /aʔe/.

=== Phonology ===
Hadza syllable structure is limited to CVN in native words. There are no vowel-initial roots, unless ''h'' is analyzed as an allophone of zero. Syllable-coda N surfaces as a homorganic nasal when a following consonant has a place of articulation to assimilate to, and as nasalization of the vowel before a glottal consonant (glottal stop and ''h''/zero) and pre-pausa. Coda N appears allophonically before voiced or glottalized nasal clicks. A moraic (syllabic?) nasal is also found word-initially in loans, where it may have a different pitch than the following vowel; such nasals are analyzed as NCV sequences rather than as a series of prenasalized consonants. Initial NCV may also occur when the initial hV syllable of an hVCV- word is elided and the C2 is a glottalized nasal click.

==== Stress and tone ====
Salient stress and pitch is not restricted to a particular syllable. There are no known minimal pairs, grammatical or lexical, for stress or tone. Pairs claimed in the literature have turned out to either not be distinct or not be minimal pairs. It may be that some loanwords retain their tone from their source language.

==== Vowels ====
There are five phonemic vowels, which are close to cardinal [a e i o u].

{| class="wikitable" style=text-align:center
|+Hadza vowels
| style="background: white" |
! Front
! Central
! Back
|-
! High
| i || || u
|-
! Mid
| e || || o
|-
! Low
| || a ||
|}

Phonetic nasal vowels, which are not common except before a consonant, are here analyzed as /VN/.

Phonetic long vowels are often sequences, as in ''kaha'' [kaː] ~ [kaɦa] 'to climb'. In some words, however, there is no allomorph with [ɦ], as in ''bôko'' [boːko] 'she' (forms a minimal pair with ''boko'' [boko] 'to be ill'). There is no known minimal set to establish long /Vː/ as distinct from a /VV/ sequence.

The mid vowels /e, o/ tend to rise when a high vowel, /i, u/, occurs in the following syllable, and may merge with /i, u/ in that position. However, such assimilation tends to be optional, even in suffixed pronouns such as ''onebii'' [ʔone̝biʔi] ~ ''unibii'' [ʔunibiʔi] 'we' (masculine, inclusive).

/u/ is relatively uncommon except in loans or due to vowel-height assimilation, and does not occur in grammatical morphemes unless the morpheme has a second syllable with vowel /i/.

Vowels tend to devoice pre-pausa and after a voiceless consonant. In the highly frequent pattern of word-final -V₁ʔV₁ (where the two vowels are the same, found in half of all grammatical suffixes and clitics though not frequently elsewhere), the vowel and preceding glottal stop tend to elide completely, whether pre-pausa or before another word.

==== Consonants ====
Hadza has at least 50 productive syllable onsets and several more marginal consonants.

{| class="wikitable" style=text-align:center
|+Principal Hadza consonants (Parentheses: loans. Dark background: may follow a nasal coda.)
! rowspan=2 colspan=2 |
! rowspan=2 | Labial
! rowspan=2 colspan=2 | (Denti-) alveolar
! rowspan=2 | (Post-) alveolar
! rowspan=2 | Palatal
! colspan=2 | Post-velar
! rowspan=2 | Glottal/ placeless
|- class=small
! plain
! labialized
|-
! rowspan=4 | Click
! Aspirated
|
| colspan=2 style="background: silver" | ᵏǀʰ
| style="background: silver" |ᵏǃʰ
| style="background: silver" |ᵏǁʰ
| colspan=3 rowspan=4 style="background: white" |
|-
! Tenuis
|
| colspan=2 style="background: silver" | ᵏǀ
| style="background: silver" |ᵏǃ
| style="background: silver" |ᵏǁ
|-
! Voiced nasal
|
| colspan=2 | ᵑǀ
| ᵑǃ
| ᵑǁ
|-
! Glottalized nasal
|
| colspan=2 | ᵑǀˀ
| ᵑǃˀ
| ᵑǁˀ
|-
! rowspan=5 | Plosive / affricate
|-
! Ejective
| pʼ
| colspan=2| t͜sʼ
| t͜ʃʼ
| c͜ʎ̥˔ʼ
| k͜xʼ
| k͜xʷʼ
| style="background: white" |
|-
! Aspirated
| style="background: silver" |pʰ
| style="background: silver" |tʰ
| style="background: silver" |t͜sʰ
| style="background: silver" |t͜ʃʰ
| c͜ʎ̥˔ʰ
| style="background: silver" |kʰ
| style="background: silver" |kʷʰ
|
|-
! Tenuis
| style="background: silver" |p
| style="background: silver" |t
| style="background: silver" |t͜s
| style="background: silver" |t͜ʃ
| c͜ʎ̥˔
| style="background: silver" |k
| style="background: silver" |kʷ
| style="background: silver" |ʔ
|-
! Voiced
| b
| (d)
| (d͜z)
| (d͜ʒ)
|
| (ɡ)
| (ɡʷ)
| style="background: white" |
|-
! colspan=2| Nasal
| m
| colspan=2| n
| colspan=2| (ɲ)
| (ŋ)
| (ŋʷ)
| //ƞ//
|-
! colspan=2 | Fricative
| (fʷ)
| ɬ
| s
| ʃ
|
|
|
|
|-
! colspan=2 | Sonorant
|
| colspan=2 | ɺ
|
| j
|
| w
| style="background: silver" | ɦ (zero?)
|}

Consonants in parentheses are thought to be loans, though the voiced obstruents at least are well-integrated and may be spreading to native roots.

Consonants with a grey background may follow a coda nasal. (That is, they may be C2 in a CVNCV pattern.) /ᵏǃ/ and /ᵏǁ/ are not attested in this position, but it is suspected these are accidental gaps, given that only two roots are known with /ᵏǀ/ after a nasal and that the gaps have not yet been investigated in the field.

The voice-onset time of consonants is reduced after a nasal coda: tenuis consonants may be partially or completely voiced, and the aspiration of aspirated consonants may be reduced or lost. This is true of clicks as well as of plosives and affricates. A /b/~/p/ distinction has not been found in this position despite /b/ being native.

Aspirated consonants may only be distinct in the first several syllables of a word. Many speakers distinguish aspirated plosives in only a few words, but maintain a robust distinction for affricates and clicks. The reason for this asymmetry is unknown.

The glottalized nasal clicks surface as e.g. [ǃʔ] post-pausa and often [ŋ͡nʔǃ] intervocalically. Accounts differ as to whether there is voiceless nasal airflow in post-pausa position.

Aspirated clicks may have a delayed and clearly audible posterior release, e.g. [ᵏǃʰ] ~ [ᵏǃkʰ]. This release has the same post-velar articulation as the k-series of plosives.

The ǃ-clicks tend to be weakly articulated, though, so far as is known, not slapped as has been reported from Sandawe. When intervocalic, /ᵑǃ/ may surface as or nearly as [ŋ͡n]. The ǁ-clicks, on the other hand, are typically quite salient.

Among the ejectives, /pʼ/ is uncommon. Many vary between affricate and fricative realizations. [sʼ, ʃʼ, xʼ, xʷʼ] have been noted. /k͜xʼ/ and /k͜xʷʼ/ have plosive allophones [kʼ, kʷʼ], and at least /k͜xʼ/ has a lateral allophone [k͜ʟ̝̊ʼ]. /t͜sʼ/ may be the ejective correlate of both the /t/ and /t͜s/ series of pulmonic consonants.

The palatal lateral affricates may be pronounced with an alveolar onset, e.g. [t͜ʎ̥˔], or without involving the front of the tongue, e.g. [c͜ʎ̥˔]. Speakers express no preference when hearing these articulations. The fricative /ɬ/ is alveolar; a palatal articulation is not accepted. Given that the fricative may be pronounced as an affricate in some prosodic situations, this means that there is a three-way phonetic place contrast among laterals: [t͜ɬ] vs [t͜ʎ̥˔ ~ c͜ʎ̥˔] and [t͜ʎ̥˔ʼ ~ c͜ʎ̥˔ʼ] vs [k͜ʟ̝̊ʼ].

/ɺ/ is typically realized as [l] post-pausa and [ɾ] elsewhere, though [ɺ] is not uncommon. It also tends toward [l] when it occurs as both C1 and C2, as in /ɺoɺa/ (sp. rabbit).

[ɦ] and zero may be allophones. If so, and given that vowel-initial suffixes may elide a stem-final vowel, it would be simplest to posit that the phoneme is zero and [ɦ] an allophone of zero, rather than that /ɦ/ is elided under some conditions. A predictive conditioning environment for the presence or absence of [ɦ] has not been discovered, but prosody may play a role; even vowel-initial suffixes and clitics may be realized with an initial [ɦ] when given contrastive prosody. Assimilation or bilingualism may be involved in the case of loanwords. For instance, an Isanzu loan for 'snake' was recorded as ''ihato'' /ʔiɦato/ at the beginning of the 20th century (and perhaps in an Isanzu-biligual area) but as ''iyato'' /ʔiato/ at the beginning of the 21st century in Mangola.

The glides /j/ and /w/ are not distinctive next to front (/i, e/) and back (/o, u/) vowels, respectively. It is possible that they are allophones of /i/ and /u/. When they occur word-initially, purported /jV, wV/ often appear as [ʔijV] and [ʔuwV]. This is true even of a ubiquitous sequential auxiliary (''yamo'' [jamo] ~ ''iamo'' [ʔiamo] in the 3msg posterior (past?) tense). /j/ does however occur in two object suffixes where such variation has not been noted. In the anthropological and linguistic literature, glides are often written between unlike vowels. For example, the 3msg non-past copula clitic ''-ha'' /ɦa/ is often transcribed 'ya' after a front vowel and 'wa' after a back vowel.

;Marginal consonants

A labial click, variously reported as [ᵑʘʷ] or [ᵑʘˀ], is found in a single root, ''mcwa-'', that is mimetic for a kiss and often made with an accompanying kiss to the hand. It may be that it is allophonic with a dental click in the root ''ncua-'' /ᵑǀua/ 'kiss'.

A trill [r] is used by some speakers in some words, perhaps reflecting the pronunciation of the word in the language it was borrowed from. It is replaced with /ɺ/ by other speakers.

An implosive [ɓ] is used by some speakers in some words, perhaps reflecting the pronunciation of the word in the source language. It is replaced with /b/ by other speakers. Other implosives have not been noted.

A fricative [x] occurs lexicalized in an expletive, ''ahho'' [ʔaxo], where otherwise the root is ''akho'' /ʔakʰo/ 'genitals'. (/kʰ/ is commonly realized as [kx].)

;Phonotactics
All clicks within a root must be the same, as in /ᵏǀikiɺiƞᵏǀa/ 'pinkie'. Although there is a tendency for clicks and ejectives to occur as C1, in a quarter of click words the click occurs as C2.

Clicks and ejectives may co-occur, but always in that order. When they co-occur, there appears to be some sibilant harmony, with a strong tendency for /t͜sʼ/ to occur with denti-alveolar clicks and for /c͜ʎ̥˔ʼ/ to occur with lateral clicks.

When an aspirated consonant occurs more than once in a word, the first tends to deaspirate (Grassmann's/Katupha's Law, though generally optional). A coda N may block deaspiration, as in the allomorphs /peᵏǃeᵏǃʰe/ ~ /peƞᵏǃʰeƞᵏǃʰe/ 'to rush'. NC sequences may loose their nasal segment as well, as in /ƞtʰaɺaƞtʰaɺaʔabiʔi/ ~ /taɺaƞtʰaɺaʔabiʔi/ '(arrow) barbs'. It is not clear to what extent these patterns hold with two different aspirated consonants.

===Swadesh lists===
Only roots are given. For example, the word for 'name', given as the root ''akhana'' below, is actually feminine plural ''akhanabee''.

====Wichmann & Holman basic 40-word list (ordered by stability)====

#louse ''ccamazzi'' /ᵑǀˀamat͜sʼi/<ref>cf. ''ccezze'' /ᵑǀˀet͜s’e/ 'tick'</ref>
#two ''piye'' /pie/, ''konxa'' /koᵑǁa/ (verb)
#water ''ati'' /ʔati/ (mpl; msg = 'rain, river')
#ear ''hajjapitchi'' /ɦat͜ʃ’apit͜ʃʰi/<ref>from ''hazzape'' /ɦat͜s’ape/ 'leaf'?</ref>
#to die ''taxxi'' /taᵑǁˀi/, ''misi'' /misi/ (Datooga?)
#I *one /ʔone/, */-ko/<ref>If *-ko-a > /-kʷa/ rather than *-kʷa-ʔV > /-koʔo/.</ref>
#liver ''xxe'' /ᵑǁˀe/
#eye ''akhwa'' /ʔakʷʰa/
#hand, arm ''ukhwa'' /ʔukʷʰa/
#hear ''nxaʼe'' /ᵑǁaʔe/
#tree ''zziti'' /t͜s’iti/
#fish ''ccama'' /ᵑǀˀama/, ''ccara'' /ᵑǀˀaɺa/
#name ''akhana'' /ʔakʰana/
#stone ''haqqa'' /ɦaᵑǃˀa/
#tooth ''aha'' /ʔaɦa/
#breast ''iriba'' /ʔiɺiba/ ('breasts, milk'. Cushitic); ''ggazza'' /k͜x’at͜s’a/ ('flesh at sternum')
#thou ''the'' /tʰe/, /-en-/ (m), /-n-/ (f)
#path ''yeke'' /jeke/
#bone ''midla'' /mic͜ʎ̥˔’a/ (cf. Dahalo)
#tongue ''ncata'' /ᵑǀata/
#skin ''ahu'' /ʔaɦu/
#night ''zzifi'' /t͜s’ifi/ (m; f = 'day')
#leaf ''hazzape'' /ɦat͜s’ape/
#rain = 'water' (msg = 'rain, river'; mpl = 'water')
#kill ''xô'' /ᵏǁoː/
#blood ''athama'' /ʔatʰama/
#horn ''roo'' /ɺoʔo/
#person ''haza'' /ɦad͜za/ (human), ''unu'' /ʔunu/ (person)
#knee ''guringuri'' /ɡuɺiƞɡuɺi/ ~ ''gurunguri'' /ɡuɺuƞɡuɺi/ (Cushitic? pan-African)
#one ''itchâme'' /ʔit͜ʃʰaːme/
#nose ''intawe'' /ʔiƞtʰawe/
#full ''ggaʼe'' /k͜x’aʔe/, *cco- /ᵑǀˀo-/
#come ''za'' /d͜za/ (Bantu), ''botco'' /bot͜ʃo/ (stem of imperative)
#star ''ntsa'' /ƞt͜sʰa/, ''sa'' /sa/ (Cushitic?)<ref>Anyawire et al. (2013) only found ''ntsa''. Tucker et al. (1977) report ''sa'' 'star', and Woodburn confirms the form he knows does not have a nasal onset. /ƞ/ + /sa/ would generate /ƞt͜sʰa/. Indeed, speakers do not care if the latter is written ''ntsa'' or ''nsa''. There are several Cushitic loanwords that have an onset that varies as C ~ NC in Hadza where the source language is only reconstructed with C.</ref>
#mountain ''xxudle'' /ᵑǁˀuc͜ʎ̥˔’e/
#fire ''zzoko'' /t͜s’oko/
#we (exclusive) ''ô'' /ʔoː/, /-j-/
#to drink ''fa'' /fʷa/
#to see ''chî'' /ᵏǀʰiː/ ~ ''cî'' /ᵏǀiː/
#bark ''heggwa'' /ɦek͜xʷ’a/
#new ''zana'' /d͜zana/<ref>from ''za'' 'come'?</ref>
#dog ''xhaano'' /ᵏǁʰaʔano/, ''tîngi'' /tiːƞki/
#sun ''isho'' /ʔiʃo/

====Other Swadesh-100 words====

===Notes===
<references/>

===Bibliography===

* Mariamu Anyawire, G.G. Bala, Kirk Miller & Bonny Sands (2013). ''A Hadza Lexicon'' (ms). Kirk Miller, ed.
* Roger Blench (2008). [https://web.archive.org/web/20110721180216/http://www.rogerblench.info/Language%20data/Khoesan/Blench%20paper%20Riezlern%202008.pdf Hadza Animal Names.] Paper presented at the 3rd International Symposium on Khoisan Languages and Linguistics, Riezlern, 7–9 July 2008.
* Niklas Edenmyr (2004). [https://web.archive.org/web/20070706040409/http://www.african.gu.se/aa/pdfs/aa04003.pdf The semantics of Hadza gender assignment: a few notes from the field.] ''Africa & Asia'', no. 4, Department of Oriental and African languages, Göteborg University, 3–19.
* Edward Elderkin (1978). Loans in Hadza: internal evidence from consonants. ''Occasional Papers'' 3, Dar es Salaam.
* Peter Ladefoged, Ian Maddieson & Bonny Sands, Bonny (1991). [http://archive.phonetics.ucla.edu/Language/HTS/hts.html Hadza wordlist and sound files]. UCLA Phonetics Lab Archive.
* ———— (1993). [https://www.academia.edu/17743030/The_phonetic_structures_of_Hadza The Phonetic Structures of Hadza.] In [http://repositories.cdlib.org/uclaling/wpp/No84/ ''UCLA Working Papers in Phonetics'' No. 84: ''Fieldwork Studies in Targeted Languages'',] 67–87.
* Kirk Miller (2008). [https://www.academia.edu/36533859/Hadza_grammar_notes Hadza Grammar Notes.] Paper presented at the 3rd International Symposium on Khoisan Languages and Linguistics, Riezlern, 7–9 July 2008.
* ———— (2009). [https://www.academia.edu/36533860/Highlights_of_Hadza_Fieldwork Highlights of Hadza fieldwork.] Paper presented at the 83rd Annual Meeting of the Linguistic Society of America, San Francisco, 8–11 January 2009.
* Bonny Sands (1998). The Linguistic Relationship between Hadza and Khoisan. In Schladt, Matthias (ed.) ''Language, Identity, and Conceptualization among the Khoisan'' (Quellen zur Khoisan-Forschung Vol. 15), Köln: Rüdiger Köppe, 265–283.
* ———— (2013). Phonetics and phonology: Hadza; Tonology: Hadza; Morphology: Hadza; Syntax: Hadza. In Rainer Vossen, ed., ''The Khoesan Languages''. Oxford: Routledge.
*Sergei Starostin. [http://starling.rinet.ru/cgi-bin/response.cgi?root=new100&morpho=0&basename=new100\hdz\hdz&limit=-1 Hadza basic lexicon.] Global Lexicostatistical Database. [much of the parsing is speculation, and Bleek's posthumous data is unreliable]
* A.N. Tucker, M.A. Bryan & James Woodburn as co-author for Hadza (1977). The East African Click Languages: A Phonetic Comparison. In J.G. Moehlig, Franz Rottland, Bernd Heine, eds, ''Zur Sprachgeschichte und Ethnohistorie in Afrika.'' Berlin: Dietrich Diener Verlag.

[[Category:En]]
[[Category:Single language]]

Hadza

2019-03-05T22:27:31Z

Kirk Miller: /* Wichmann & Holman basic 40-word list (ordered by stability) */

{{InfoboxLanguage
|Language = Hadza
|Autonym = ''Haza, hazane''
|Pronunciation = ɦad͜za
|Ethn15name = Hadza
|Countries = Tanzania
|OfficialLg = none
|OLACname = Hadza
|WALSLoc = 3°45′ S, 35°10′ E
|Speakers = 1,000
|Family = [[isolate]]
|Genus = Hadza
|WritingSyst = none
|ISO3 = hts
}}

Hadza is a language isolate of Tanzania.

=== Location and Speakers ===
Hadza is spoken along the entire eastern shore of alkaline Lake Eyasi, which lies at the base of the Serengeti Plateau in Tanzania, from Mount Oldeani in the north to the Isanzu agricultural areas in the south.

There is a small population of Hadza to the west of the lake, in ''Dunduina'' /duƞtuina/<ref>This article uses the old IPA letter for a moraic nasal, ⟨ƞ⟩, which was retired because it has no specific phonetic value. In Hadza, the moraic nasal is homorganic with a following consonant.</ref> 'Sukumaland', but their number seems to be decreasing and many only speak Sukuma and Swahili.

There are approximately 1,000 speakers of Hadza, most now bilingual in Swahili. Other second languages include [[Isanzu]] in the south, [[Sukuma]] in the west, and to a lesser degree [[Datooga]] in the center (e.g. near the Yaeda Valley) and [[Iraqw]] on the margins of Iraqw territory. The northern Hadza area, around the town of Mangola, was largely monolingual until the introduction of Standard Swahili after independence.

As of 2005, about 40% of Hadza lived as full-time hunter-gatherers, and language transmission was robust in the areas east of the lake, but since then there have been reports of children speaking Swahili east of the lake, perhaps due to the influx of ''Dunduinabee'' abandoning their territory in the west.

=== Classification ===
Hadza is a [[language isolate]]. Greenberg classified it as [[Khoisan]] due to its use of [[click consonant]]s. If it were not for the clicks, it's likely that Hadza would have been classified as [[Cushitic]].

=== Dialects ===
There do not appear to be any dialects of Hadza, presumably due to the mobility of its speakers. There are some regional differences of vocabulary, however, and speakers note that there are many more Bantu loans in the south.

=== Name ===
"Hadza" is the most common name in the literature. ''Haza'' /ɦad͜za/ simply means 'human being'. The derivative "Hadzane" (/ɦad͜zane/ 'in the manner of the people') is sometimes encountered as the name of the language. The feminine plural ''hazabee'' /ɦad͜zabeʔe/ may be used for the people, though it is usually spelled "Hadzabe" due to devoicing of the final vowel. (The feminine is the inclusive gender in the plural.) "Hadzapi" is the masculine copular form ''hazaphii'' /ɦad͜zapʰiʔi/. "Hatza" and "Hatsa" are older German spellings.

"Tindiga" is from the Swahili name, ''watindiga'' 'people of the marsh grass', presumably named for the large spring in Mangola. The form ''wahadza'', ''kihadza'' is found instead of ''watindiga'', ''kitindiga'' in recent Swahili publications, but the Hadza do not consider ''watindiga'' to be pejorative. "Kindiga" may be a cognate from one of the local Bantu languages. "Kangeju" (pronounced ''Kangeyu'') is an obsolete German name of unclear origin. The name "Wahi" (pronounced ''Vahi'') found in Kohl-Larsen is a Sukuma name for the Hadza.

=== Orthography ===
Hadza does not have a written tradition. Two orthographies have seen recent use: the phonetic transcription of Tucker, Bryan & Woodburn (1977), used with some modification by Woodburn and other anthropologists, and the practical orthography of Anyawire et al. (2013). As it is based on the IPA, the Woodburn transcription is more accessible to linguists, while the Anyawire orthography is closer to those of Sandawe and other written languages of Tanzania. There is evidently some political controversy over the choice of orthography, with Hadza reporting they have been told that if they use the Anyawire orthography they will loose their land. There are two motivations for the Anyawire orthography: the perception that the IPA click letters of the Woodburn transcription portray the Hadza language as bizarre, when the Hadza people already have difficulties with being marginalized and a perception that they are not proper human beings, and the practical issue that the ubiquitous apostrophe of the Woodburn transcription makes it impractical for extended use. The apostrophes are generally omitted by those Hadza who have learned it, with the resulting texts often being unintelligible even to their authors; when the apostrophes are written, they greatly slow down the pace of writing. In the Anyawire orthography, doubled consonants and vowels are used for glottalized/ejective consonants and glottal stop, with the apostrophe only being used for the Swahili convention of ⟨ngʼ⟩ for /ŋ/.

The Anyawire orthography is used alongside the IPA in this article for accessibility with the dictionary. For clarity, an apostrophe will be retained for glottal stop between unlike vowels, for e.g. ''ae'' /ae/ vs ''aʼe'' /aʔe/. In practice, the Hadza are more likely to use epenthetic glides between vowels in hiatus, for e.g. ''aye'' /ae/ and ''ae'' /aʔe/.

=== Phonology ===
Hadza syllable structure is limited to CVN in native words. There are no vowel-initial roots, unless ''h'' is analyzed as an allophone of zero. Syllable-coda N surfaces as a homorganic nasal when a following consonant has a place of articulation to assimilate to, and as nasalization of the vowel before a glottal consonant (glottal stop and ''h''/zero) and pre-pausa. Coda N appears allophonically before voiced or glottalized nasal clicks. A moraic (syllabic?) nasal is also found word-initially in loans, where it may have a different pitch than the following vowel; such nasals are analyzed as NCV sequences rather than as a series of prenasalized consonants. Initial NCV may also occur when the initial hV syllable of an hVCV- word is elided and the C2 is a glottalized nasal click.

==== Stress and tone ====
Salient stress and pitch is not restricted to a particular syllable. There are no known minimal pairs, grammatical or lexical, for stress or tone. Pairs claimed in the literature have turned out to either not be distinct or not be minimal pairs. It may be that some loanwords retain their tone from their source language.

==== Vowels ====
There are five phonemic vowels, which are close to cardinal [a e i o u].

{| class="wikitable" style=text-align:center
|+Hadza vowels
| style="background: white" |
! Front
! Central
! Back
|-
! High
| i || || u
|-
! Mid
| e || || o
|-
! Low
| || a ||
|}

Phonetic nasal vowels, which are not common except before a consonant, are here analyzed as /VN/.

Phonetic long vowels are often sequences, as in ''kaha'' [kaː] ~ [kaɦa] 'to climb'. In some words, however, there is no allomorph with [ɦ], as in ''bôko'' [boːko] 'she' (forms a minimal pair with ''boko'' [boko] 'to be ill'). There is no known minimal set to establish long /Vː/ as distinct from a /VV/ sequence.

The mid vowels /e, o/ tend to rise when a high vowel, /i, u/, occurs in the following syllable, and may merge with /i, u/ in that position. However, such assimilation tends to be optional, even in suffixed pronouns such as ''onebii'' [ʔone̝biʔi] ~ ''unibii'' [ʔunibiʔi] 'we' (masculine, inclusive).

/u/ is relatively uncommon except in loans or due to vowel-height assimilation, and does not occur in grammatical morphemes unless the morpheme has a second syllable with vowel /i/.

Vowels tend to devoice pre-pausa and after a voiceless consonant. In the highly frequent pattern of word-final -V₁ʔV₁ (where the two vowels are the same, found in half of all grammatical suffixes and clitics though not frequently elsewhere), the vowel and preceding glottal stop tend to elide completely, whether pre-pausa or before another word.

==== Consonants ====
Hadza has at least 50 productive syllable onsets and several more marginal consonants.

{| class="wikitable" style=text-align:center
|+Principal Hadza consonants (Parentheses: loans. Dark background: may follow a nasal coda.)
! rowspan=2 colspan=2 |
! rowspan=2 | Labial
! rowspan=2 colspan=2 | (Denti-) alveolar
! rowspan=2 | (Post-) alveolar
! rowspan=2 | Palatal
! colspan=2 | Post-velar
! rowspan=2 | Glottal/ placeless
|- class=small
! plain
! labialized
|-
! rowspan=4 | Click
! Aspirated
|
| colspan=2 style="background: silver" | ᵏǀʰ
| style="background: silver" |ᵏǃʰ
| style="background: silver" |ᵏǁʰ
| colspan=3 rowspan=4 style="background: white" |
|-
! Tenuis
|
| colspan=2 style="background: silver" | ᵏǀ
| style="background: silver" |ᵏǃ
| style="background: silver" |ᵏǁ
|-
! Voiced nasal
|
| colspan=2 | ᵑǀ
| ᵑǃ
| ᵑǁ
|-
! Glottalized nasal
|
| colspan=2 | ᵑǀˀ
| ᵑǃˀ
| ᵑǁˀ
|-
! rowspan=5 | Plosive / affricate
|-
! Ejective
| pʼ
| colspan=2| t͜sʼ
| t͜ʃʼ
| c͜ʎ̥˔ʼ
| k͜xʼ
| k͜xʷʼ
| style="background: white" |
|-
! Aspirated
| style="background: silver" |pʰ
| style="background: silver" |tʰ
| style="background: silver" |t͜sʰ
| style="background: silver" |t͜ʃʰ
| c͜ʎ̥˔ʰ
| style="background: silver" |kʰ
| style="background: silver" |kʷʰ
|
|-
! Tenuis
| style="background: silver" |p
| style="background: silver" |t
| style="background: silver" |t͜s
| style="background: silver" |t͜ʃ
| c͜ʎ̥˔
| style="background: silver" |k
| style="background: silver" |kʷ
| style="background: silver" |ʔ
|-
! Voiced
| b
| (d)
| (d͜z)
| (d͜ʒ)
|
| (ɡ)
| (ɡʷ)
| style="background: white" |
|-
! colspan=2| Nasal
| m
| colspan=2| n
| colspan=2| (ɲ)
| (ŋ)
| (ŋʷ)
| //ƞ//
|-
! colspan=2 | Fricative
| (fʷ)
| ɬ
| s
| ʃ
|
|
|
|
|-
! colspan=2 | Sonorant
|
| colspan=2 | ɺ
|
| j
|
| w
| style="background: silver" | ɦ (zero?)
|}

Consonants in parentheses are thought to be loans, though the voiced obstruents at least are well-integrated and may be spreading to native roots.

Consonants with a grey background may follow a coda nasal. (That is, they may be C2 in a CVNCV pattern.) /ᵏǃ/ and /ᵏǁ/ are not attested in this position, but it is suspected these are accidental gaps, given that only two roots are known with /ᵏǀ/ after a nasal and that the gaps have not yet been investigated in the field.

The voice-onset time of consonants is reduced after a nasal coda: tenuis consonants may be partially or completely voiced, and the aspiration of aspirated consonants may be reduced or lost. This is true of clicks as well as of plosives and affricates. A /b/~/p/ distinction has not been found in this position despite /b/ being native.

Aspirated consonants may only be distinct in the first several syllables of a word. Many speakers distinguish aspirated plosives in only a few words, but maintain a robust distinction for affricates and clicks. The reason for this asymmetry is unknown.

The glottalized nasal clicks surface as e.g. [ǃʔ] post-pausa and often [ŋ͡nʔǃ] intervocalically. Accounts differ as to whether there is voiceless nasal airflow in post-pausa position.

Aspirated clicks may have a delayed and clearly audible posterior release, e.g. [ᵏǃʰ] ~ [ᵏǃkʰ]. This release has the same post-velar articulation as the k-series of plosives.

The ǃ-clicks tend to be weakly articulated, though, so far as is known, not slapped as has been reported from Sandawe. When intervocalic, /ᵑǃ/ may surface as or nearly as [ŋ͡n]. The ǁ-clicks, on the other hand, are typically quite salient.

Among the ejectives, /pʼ/ is uncommon. Many vary between affricate and fricative realizations. [sʼ, ʃʼ, xʼ, xʷʼ] have been noted. /k͜xʼ/ and /k͜xʷʼ/ have plosive allophones [kʼ, kʷʼ], and at least /k͜xʼ/ has a lateral allophone [k͜ʟ̝̊ʼ]. /t͜sʼ/ may be the ejective correlate of both the /t/ and /t͜s/ series of pulmonic consonants.

The palatal lateral affricates may be pronounced with an alveolar onset, e.g. [t͜ʎ̥˔], or without involving the front of the tongue, e.g. [c͜ʎ̥˔]. Speakers express no preference when hearing these articulations. The fricative /ɬ/ is alveolar; a palatal articulation is not accepted. Given that the fricative may be pronounced as an affricate in some prosodic situations, this means that there is a three-way phonetic place contrast among laterals: [t͜ɬ] vs [t͜ʎ̥˔ ~ c͜ʎ̥˔] and [t͜ʎ̥˔ʼ ~ c͜ʎ̥˔ʼ] vs [k͜ʟ̝̊ʼ].

/ɺ/ is typically realized as [l] post-pausa and [ɾ] elsewhere, though [ɺ] is not uncommon. It also tends toward [l] when it occurs as both C1 and C2, as in /ɺoɺa/ (sp. rabbit).

[ɦ] and zero may be allophones. If so, and given that vowel-initial suffixes may elide a stem-final vowel, it would be simplest to posit that the phoneme is zero and [ɦ] an allophone of zero, rather than that /ɦ/ is elided under some conditions. A predictive conditioning environment for the presence or absence of [ɦ] has not been discovered, but prosody may play a role; even vowel-initial suffixes and clitics may be realized with an initial [ɦ] when given contrastive prosody. Assimilation or bilingualism may be involved in the case of loanwords. For instance, an Isanzu loan for 'snake' was recorded as ''ihato'' /ʔiɦato/ at the beginning of the 20th century (and perhaps in an Isanzu-biligual area) but as ''iyato'' /ʔiato/ at the beginning of the 21st century in Mangola.

The glides /j/ and /w/ are not distinctive next to front (/i, e/) and back (/o, u/) vowels, respectively. It is possible that they are allophones of /i/ and /u/. When they occur word-initially, purported /jV, wV/ often appear as [ʔijV] and [ʔuwV]. This is true even of a ubiquitous sequential auxiliary (''yamo'' [jamo] ~ ''iamo'' [ʔiamo] in the 3msg posterior (past?) tense). /j/ does however occur in two object suffixes where such variation has not been noted. In the anthropological and linguistic literature, glides are often written between unlike vowels. For example, the 3msg non-past copula clitic ''-ha'' /ɦa/ is often transcribed 'ya' after a front vowel and 'wa' after a back vowel.

;Marginal consonants

A labial click, variously reported as [ᵑʘʷ] or [ᵑʘˀ], is found in a single root, ''mcwa-'', that is mimetic for a kiss and often made with an accompanying kiss to the hand. It may be that it is allophonic with a dental click in the root ''ncua-'' /ᵑǀua/ 'kiss'.

A trill [r] is used by some speakers in some words, perhaps reflecting the pronunciation of the word in the language it was borrowed from. It is replaced with /ɺ/ by other speakers.

An implosive [ɓ] is used by some speakers in some words, perhaps reflecting the pronunciation of the word in the source language. It is replaced with /b/ by other speakers. Other implosives have not been noted.

A fricative [x] occurs lexicalized in an expletive, ''ahho'' [ʔaxo], where otherwise the root is ''akho'' /ʔakʰo/ 'genitals'. (/kʰ/ is commonly realized as [kx].)

;Phonotactics
All clicks within a root must be the same, as in /ᵏǀikiɺiƞᵏǀa/ 'pinkie'. Although there is a tendency for clicks and ejectives to occur as C1, in a quarter of click words the click occurs as C2.

Clicks and ejectives may co-occur, but always in that order. When they co-occur, there appears to be some sibilant harmony, with a strong tendency for /t͜sʼ/ to occur with denti-alveolar clicks and for /c͜ʎ̥˔ʼ/ to occur with lateral clicks.

When an aspirated consonant occurs more than once in a word, the first tends to deaspirate (Grassmann's/Katupha's Law, though generally optional). A coda N may block deaspiration, as in the allomorphs /peᵏǃeᵏǃʰe/ ~ /peƞᵏǃʰeƞᵏǃʰe/ 'to rush'. NC sequences may loose their nasal segment as well, as in /ƞtʰaɺaƞtʰaɺaʔabiʔi/ ~ /taɺaƞtʰaɺaʔabiʔi/ '(arrow) barbs'. It is not clear to what extent these patterns hold with two different aspirated consonants.

===Swadesh lists===
Only roots are given. For example, the word for 'name', given as the root ''akhana'' below, is actually feminine plural ''akhanabee''.

====Wichmann & Holman basic 40-word list (ordered by stability)====

#louse ''ccamazzi'' /ᵑǀˀamat͜sʼi/<ref>cf. ''ccezze'' /ᵑǀˀet͜s’e/ 'tick'</ref>
#two ''piye'' /pie/, ''konxa'' /koᵑǁa/ (verb)
#water ''ati'' /ʔati/ (mpl; msg = 'rain, river')
#ear ''hajjapitchi'' /ɦat͜ʃ’apit͜ʃʰi/<ref>from ''hazzape'' /ɦat͜s’ape/ 'leaf'?</ref>
#to die ''taxxi'' /taᵑǁˀi/, ''misi'' /misi/ (Datooga?)
#I *one /ʔone/, */-ko/<ref>If *-ko-a > /-kʷa/ rather than *-kʷa-ʔV > /-koʔo/.</ref>
#liver ''xxe'' /ᵑǁˀe/
#eye ''akhwa'' /ʔakʷʰa/
#hand, arm ''ukhwa'' /ʔukʷʰa/
#hear ''nxaʼe'' /ᵑǁaʔe/
#tree ''zziti'' /t͜s’iti/
#fish ''ccama'' /ᵑǀˀama/, ''ccara'' /ᵑǀˀaɺa/
#name ''akhana'' /ʔakʰana/
#stone ''haqqa'' /ɦaᵑǃˀa/
#tooth ''aha'' /ʔaɦa/
#breast ''iriba'' /ʔiɺiba/ ('breasts, milk'. Cushitic); ''ggazza'' /k͜x’at͜s’a/ ('flesh at sternum')
#thou ''the'' /tʰe/, /-en-/ (m), /-n-/ (f)
#path ''yeke'' /jeke/
#bone ''midla'' /mic͜ʎ̥˔’a/ (cf. Dahalo)
#tongue ''ncata'' /ᵑǀata/
#skin ''ahu'' /ʔaɦu/
#night ''zzifi'' /t͜s’ifi/ (m; f = 'day')
#leaf ''hazzape'' /ɦat͜s’ape/
#rain = 'water' (msg = 'rain, river'; mpl = 'water')
#kill ''xô'' /ᵏǁoː/
#blood ''athama'' /ʔatʰama/
#horn ''roo'' /ɺoʔo/
#person ''haza'' /ɦad͜za/ (human), ''unu'' /ʔunu/ (person)
#knee ''guringuri'' /ɡuɺiƞɡuɺi/ ~ ''gurunguri'' /ɡuɺuƞɡuɺi/ (Cushitic? pan-African)
#one ''itchâme'' /ʔit͜ʃʰaːme/
#nose ''intawe'' /ʔiƞtʰawe/
#full ''ggaʼe'' /k͜x’aʔe/, *cco- /ᵑǀˀo-/
#come ''za'' /d͜za/ (Bantu), ''botco'' /bot͜ʃo/ (stem of imperative)
#star ''ntsa'' /ƞt͜sʰa/, ''sa'' /sa/ (Cushitic?)<ref>Anyawire et al. (2013) only found ''ntsa''. Tucker et al. (1977) report ''sa'' 'star', and Woodburn confirms the form he knows does not have a nasal onset. /ƞ/ + /sa/ would generate /ƞt͜sʰa/. Indeed, speakers do not care if the latter is written ''ntsa'' or ''nsa''.</ref>
#mountain ''xxudle'' /ᵑǁˀuc͜ʎ̥˔’e/
#fire ''zzoko'' /t͜s’oko/
#we (exclusive) ''ô'' /ʔoː/, /-j-/
#to drink ''fa'' /fʷa/
#to see ''chî'' /ᵏǀʰiː/ ~ ''cî'' /ᵏǀiː/
#bark ''heggwa'' /ɦek͜xʷ’a/
#new ''zana'' /d͜zana/<ref>from ''za'' 'come'?</ref>
#dog ''xhaano'' /ᵏǁʰaʔano/, ''tîngi'' /tiːƞki/
#sun ''isho'' /ʔiʃo/

====Other Swadesh-100 words====

===Notes===
<references/>

===Bibliography===

* Mariamu Anyawire, G.G. Bala, Kirk Miller & Bonny Sands (2013). ''A Hadza Lexicon'' (ms). Kirk Miller, ed.
* Roger Blench (2008). [https://web.archive.org/web/20110721180216/http://www.rogerblench.info/Language%20data/Khoesan/Blench%20paper%20Riezlern%202008.pdf Hadza Animal Names.] Paper presented at the 3rd International Symposium on Khoisan Languages and Linguistics, Riezlern, 7–9 July 2008.
* Niklas Edenmyr (2004). [https://web.archive.org/web/20070706040409/http://www.african.gu.se/aa/pdfs/aa04003.pdf The semantics of Hadza gender assignment: a few notes from the field.] ''Africa & Asia'', no. 4, Department of Oriental and African languages, Göteborg University, 3–19.
* Edward Elderkin (1978). Loans in Hadza: internal evidence from consonants. ''Occasional Papers'' 3, Dar es Salaam.
* Peter Ladefoged, Ian Maddieson & Bonny Sands, Bonny (1991). [http://archive.phonetics.ucla.edu/Language/HTS/hts.html Hadza wordlist and sound files]. UCLA Phonetics Lab Archive.
* ———— (1993). [https://www.academia.edu/17743030/The_phonetic_structures_of_Hadza The Phonetic Structures of Hadza.] In [http://repositories.cdlib.org/uclaling/wpp/No84/ ''UCLA Working Papers in Phonetics'' No. 84: ''Fieldwork Studies in Targeted Languages'',] 67–87.
* Kirk Miller (2008). [https://www.academia.edu/36533859/Hadza_grammar_notes Hadza Grammar Notes.] Paper presented at the 3rd International Symposium on Khoisan Languages and Linguistics, Riezlern, 7–9 July 2008.
* ———— (2009). [https://www.academia.edu/36533860/Highlights_of_Hadza_Fieldwork Highlights of Hadza fieldwork.] Paper presented at the 83rd Annual Meeting of the Linguistic Society of America, San Francisco, 8–11 January 2009.
* Bonny Sands (1998). The Linguistic Relationship between Hadza and Khoisan. In Schladt, Matthias (ed.) ''Language, Identity, and Conceptualization among the Khoisan'' (Quellen zur Khoisan-Forschung Vol. 15), Köln: Rüdiger Köppe, 265–283.
* ———— (2013). Phonetics and phonology: Hadza; Tonology: Hadza; Morphology: Hadza; Syntax: Hadza. In Rainer Vossen, ed., ''The Khoesan Languages''. Oxford: Routledge.
*Sergei Starostin. [http://starling.rinet.ru/cgi-bin/response.cgi?root=new100&morpho=0&basename=new100\hdz\hdz&limit=-1 Hadza basic lexicon.] Global Lexicostatistical Database. [much of the parsing is speculation, and Bleek's posthumous data is unreliable]
* A.N. Tucker, M.A. Bryan & James Woodburn as co-author for Hadza (1977). The East African Click Languages: A Phonetic Comparison. In J.G. Moehlig, Franz Rottland, Bernd Heine, eds, ''Zur Sprachgeschichte und Ethnohistorie in Afrika.'' Berlin: Dietrich Diener Verlag.

[[Category:En]]
[[Category:Single language]]

Hadza

2019-03-05T22:25:17Z

Kirk Miller: /* Wichmann & Holman basic 40-word list (ordered by stability) */

{{InfoboxLanguage
|Language = Hadza
|Autonym = ''Haza, hazane''
|Pronunciation = ɦad͜za
|Ethn15name = Hadza
|Countries = Tanzania
|OfficialLg = none
|OLACname = Hadza
|WALSLoc = 3°45′ S, 35°10′ E
|Speakers = 1,000
|Family = [[isolate]]
|Genus = Hadza
|WritingSyst = none
|ISO3 = hts
}}

Hadza is a language isolate of Tanzania.

=== Location and Speakers ===
Hadza is spoken along the entire eastern shore of alkaline Lake Eyasi, which lies at the base of the Serengeti Plateau in Tanzania, from Mount Oldeani in the north to the Isanzu agricultural areas in the south.

There is a small population of Hadza to the west of the lake, in ''Dunduina'' /duƞtuina/<ref>This article uses the old IPA letter for a moraic nasal, ⟨ƞ⟩, which was retired because it has no specific phonetic value. In Hadza, the moraic nasal is homorganic with a following consonant.</ref> 'Sukumaland', but their number seems to be decreasing and many only speak Sukuma and Swahili.

There are approximately 1,000 speakers of Hadza, most now bilingual in Swahili. Other second languages include [[Isanzu]] in the south, [[Sukuma]] in the west, and to a lesser degree [[Datooga]] in the center (e.g. near the Yaeda Valley) and [[Iraqw]] on the margins of Iraqw territory. The northern Hadza area, around the town of Mangola, was largely monolingual until the introduction of Standard Swahili after independence.

As of 2005, about 40% of Hadza lived as full-time hunter-gatherers, and language transmission was robust in the areas east of the lake, but since then there have been reports of children speaking Swahili east of the lake, perhaps due to the influx of ''Dunduinabee'' abandoning their territory in the west.

=== Classification ===
Hadza is a [[language isolate]]. Greenberg classified it as [[Khoisan]] due to its use of [[click consonant]]s. If it were not for the clicks, it's likely that Hadza would have been classified as [[Cushitic]].

=== Dialects ===
There do not appear to be any dialects of Hadza, presumably due to the mobility of its speakers. There are some regional differences of vocabulary, however, and speakers note that there are many more Bantu loans in the south.

=== Name ===
"Hadza" is the most common name in the literature. ''Haza'' /ɦad͜za/ simply means 'human being'. The derivative "Hadzane" (/ɦad͜zane/ 'in the manner of the people') is sometimes encountered as the name of the language. The feminine plural ''hazabee'' /ɦad͜zabeʔe/ may be used for the people, though it is usually spelled "Hadzabe" due to devoicing of the final vowel. (The feminine is the inclusive gender in the plural.) "Hadzapi" is the masculine copular form ''hazaphii'' /ɦad͜zapʰiʔi/. "Hatza" and "Hatsa" are older German spellings.

"Tindiga" is from the Swahili name, ''watindiga'' 'people of the marsh grass', presumably named for the large spring in Mangola. The form ''wahadza'', ''kihadza'' is found instead of ''watindiga'', ''kitindiga'' in recent Swahili publications, but the Hadza do not consider ''watindiga'' to be pejorative. "Kindiga" may be a cognate from one of the local Bantu languages. "Kangeju" (pronounced ''Kangeyu'') is an obsolete German name of unclear origin. The name "Wahi" (pronounced ''Vahi'') found in Kohl-Larsen is a Sukuma name for the Hadza.

=== Orthography ===
Hadza does not have a written tradition. Two orthographies have seen recent use: the phonetic transcription of Tucker, Bryan & Woodburn (1977), used with some modification by Woodburn and other anthropologists, and the practical orthography of Anyawire et al. (2013). As it is based on the IPA, the Woodburn transcription is more accessible to linguists, while the Anyawire orthography is closer to those of Sandawe and other written languages of Tanzania. There is evidently some political controversy over the choice of orthography, with Hadza reporting they have been told that if they use the Anyawire orthography they will loose their land. There are two motivations for the Anyawire orthography: the perception that the IPA click letters of the Woodburn transcription portray the Hadza language as bizarre, when the Hadza people already have difficulties with being marginalized and a perception that they are not proper human beings, and the practical issue that the ubiquitous apostrophe of the Woodburn transcription makes it impractical for extended use. The apostrophes are generally omitted by those Hadza who have learned it, with the resulting texts often being unintelligible even to their authors; when the apostrophes are written, they greatly slow down the pace of writing. In the Anyawire orthography, doubled consonants and vowels are used for glottalized/ejective consonants and glottal stop, with the apostrophe only being used for the Swahili convention of ⟨ngʼ⟩ for /ŋ/.

The Anyawire orthography is used alongside the IPA in this article for accessibility with the dictionary. For clarity, an apostrophe will be retained for glottal stop between unlike vowels, for e.g. ''ae'' /ae/ vs ''aʼe'' /aʔe/. In practice, the Hadza are more likely to use epenthetic glides between vowels in hiatus, for e.g. ''aye'' /ae/ and ''ae'' /aʔe/.

=== Phonology ===
Hadza syllable structure is limited to CVN in native words. There are no vowel-initial roots, unless ''h'' is analyzed as an allophone of zero. Syllable-coda N surfaces as a homorganic nasal when a following consonant has a place of articulation to assimilate to, and as nasalization of the vowel before a glottal consonant (glottal stop and ''h''/zero) and pre-pausa. Coda N appears allophonically before voiced or glottalized nasal clicks. A moraic (syllabic?) nasal is also found word-initially in loans, where it may have a different pitch than the following vowel; such nasals are analyzed as NCV sequences rather than as a series of prenasalized consonants. Initial NCV may also occur when the initial hV syllable of an hVCV- word is elided and the C2 is a glottalized nasal click.

==== Stress and tone ====
Salient stress and pitch is not restricted to a particular syllable. There are no known minimal pairs, grammatical or lexical, for stress or tone. Pairs claimed in the literature have turned out to either not be distinct or not be minimal pairs. It may be that some loanwords retain their tone from their source language.

==== Vowels ====
There are five phonemic vowels, which are close to cardinal [a e i o u].

{| class="wikitable" style=text-align:center
|+Hadza vowels
| style="background: white" |
! Front
! Central
! Back
|-
! High
| i || || u
|-
! Mid
| e || || o
|-
! Low
| || a ||
|}

Phonetic nasal vowels, which are not common except before a consonant, are here analyzed as /VN/.

Phonetic long vowels are often sequences, as in ''kaha'' [kaː] ~ [kaɦa] 'to climb'. In some words, however, there is no allomorph with [ɦ], as in ''bôko'' [boːko] 'she' (forms a minimal pair with ''boko'' [boko] 'to be ill'). There is no known minimal set to establish long /Vː/ as distinct from a /VV/ sequence.

The mid vowels /e, o/ tend to rise when a high vowel, /i, u/, occurs in the following syllable, and may merge with /i, u/ in that position. However, such assimilation tends to be optional, even in suffixed pronouns such as ''onebii'' [ʔone̝biʔi] ~ ''unibii'' [ʔunibiʔi] 'we' (masculine, inclusive).

/u/ is relatively uncommon except in loans or due to vowel-height assimilation, and does not occur in grammatical morphemes unless the morpheme has a second syllable with vowel /i/.

Vowels tend to devoice pre-pausa and after a voiceless consonant. In the highly frequent pattern of word-final -V₁ʔV₁ (where the two vowels are the same, found in half of all grammatical suffixes and clitics though not frequently elsewhere), the vowel and preceding glottal stop tend to elide completely, whether pre-pausa or before another word.

==== Consonants ====
Hadza has at least 50 productive syllable onsets and several more marginal consonants.

{| class="wikitable" style=text-align:center
|+Principal Hadza consonants (Parentheses: loans. Dark background: may follow a nasal coda.)
! rowspan=2 colspan=2 |
! rowspan=2 | Labial
! rowspan=2 colspan=2 | (Denti-) alveolar
! rowspan=2 | (Post-) alveolar
! rowspan=2 | Palatal
! colspan=2 | Post-velar
! rowspan=2 | Glottal/ placeless
|- class=small
! plain
! labialized
|-
! rowspan=4 | Click
! Aspirated
|
| colspan=2 style="background: silver" | ᵏǀʰ
| style="background: silver" |ᵏǃʰ
| style="background: silver" |ᵏǁʰ
| colspan=3 rowspan=4 style="background: white" |
|-
! Tenuis
|
| colspan=2 style="background: silver" | ᵏǀ
| style="background: silver" |ᵏǃ
| style="background: silver" |ᵏǁ
|-
! Voiced nasal
|
| colspan=2 | ᵑǀ
| ᵑǃ
| ᵑǁ
|-
! Glottalized nasal
|
| colspan=2 | ᵑǀˀ
| ᵑǃˀ
| ᵑǁˀ
|-
! rowspan=5 | Plosive / affricate
|-
! Ejective
| pʼ
| colspan=2| t͜sʼ
| t͜ʃʼ
| c͜ʎ̥˔ʼ
| k͜xʼ
| k͜xʷʼ
| style="background: white" |
|-
! Aspirated
| style="background: silver" |pʰ
| style="background: silver" |tʰ
| style="background: silver" |t͜sʰ
| style="background: silver" |t͜ʃʰ
| c͜ʎ̥˔ʰ
| style="background: silver" |kʰ
| style="background: silver" |kʷʰ
|
|-
! Tenuis
| style="background: silver" |p
| style="background: silver" |t
| style="background: silver" |t͜s
| style="background: silver" |t͜ʃ
| c͜ʎ̥˔
| style="background: silver" |k
| style="background: silver" |kʷ
| style="background: silver" |ʔ
|-
! Voiced
| b
| (d)
| (d͜z)
| (d͜ʒ)
|
| (ɡ)
| (ɡʷ)
| style="background: white" |
|-
! colspan=2| Nasal
| m
| colspan=2| n
| colspan=2| (ɲ)
| (ŋ)
| (ŋʷ)
| //ƞ//
|-
! colspan=2 | Fricative
| (fʷ)
| ɬ
| s
| ʃ
|
|
|
|
|-
! colspan=2 | Sonorant
|
| colspan=2 | ɺ
|
| j
|
| w
| style="background: silver" | ɦ (zero?)
|}

Consonants in parentheses are thought to be loans, though the voiced obstruents at least are well-integrated and may be spreading to native roots.

Consonants with a grey background may follow a coda nasal. (That is, they may be C2 in a CVNCV pattern.) /ᵏǃ/ and /ᵏǁ/ are not attested in this position, but it is suspected these are accidental gaps, given that only two roots are known with /ᵏǀ/ after a nasal and that the gaps have not yet been investigated in the field.

The voice-onset time of consonants is reduced after a nasal coda: tenuis consonants may be partially or completely voiced, and the aspiration of aspirated consonants may be reduced or lost. This is true of clicks as well as of plosives and affricates. A /b/~/p/ distinction has not been found in this position despite /b/ being native.

Aspirated consonants may only be distinct in the first several syllables of a word. Many speakers distinguish aspirated plosives in only a few words, but maintain a robust distinction for affricates and clicks. The reason for this asymmetry is unknown.

The glottalized nasal clicks surface as e.g. [ǃʔ] post-pausa and often [ŋ͡nʔǃ] intervocalically. Accounts differ as to whether there is voiceless nasal airflow in post-pausa position.

Aspirated clicks may have a delayed and clearly audible posterior release, e.g. [ᵏǃʰ] ~ [ᵏǃkʰ]. This release has the same post-velar articulation as the k-series of plosives.

The ǃ-clicks tend to be weakly articulated, though, so far as is known, not slapped as has been reported from Sandawe. When intervocalic, /ᵑǃ/ may surface as or nearly as [ŋ͡n]. The ǁ-clicks, on the other hand, are typically quite salient.

Among the ejectives, /pʼ/ is uncommon. Many vary between affricate and fricative realizations. [sʼ, ʃʼ, xʼ, xʷʼ] have been noted. /k͜xʼ/ and /k͜xʷʼ/ have plosive allophones [kʼ, kʷʼ], and at least /k͜xʼ/ has a lateral allophone [k͜ʟ̝̊ʼ]. /t͜sʼ/ may be the ejective correlate of both the /t/ and /t͜s/ series of pulmonic consonants.

The palatal lateral affricates may be pronounced with an alveolar onset, e.g. [t͜ʎ̥˔], or without involving the front of the tongue, e.g. [c͜ʎ̥˔]. Speakers express no preference when hearing these articulations. The fricative /ɬ/ is alveolar; a palatal articulation is not accepted. Given that the fricative may be pronounced as an affricate in some prosodic situations, this means that there is a three-way phonetic place contrast among laterals: [t͜ɬ] vs [t͜ʎ̥˔ ~ c͜ʎ̥˔] and [t͜ʎ̥˔ʼ ~ c͜ʎ̥˔ʼ] vs [k͜ʟ̝̊ʼ].

/ɺ/ is typically realized as [l] post-pausa and [ɾ] elsewhere, though [ɺ] is not uncommon. It also tends toward [l] when it occurs as both C1 and C2, as in /ɺoɺa/ (sp. rabbit).

[ɦ] and zero may be allophones. If so, and given that vowel-initial suffixes may elide a stem-final vowel, it would be simplest to posit that the phoneme is zero and [ɦ] an allophone of zero, rather than that /ɦ/ is elided under some conditions. A predictive conditioning environment for the presence or absence of [ɦ] has not been discovered, but prosody may play a role; even vowel-initial suffixes and clitics may be realized with an initial [ɦ] when given contrastive prosody. Assimilation or bilingualism may be involved in the case of loanwords. For instance, an Isanzu loan for 'snake' was recorded as ''ihato'' /ʔiɦato/ at the beginning of the 20th century (and perhaps in an Isanzu-biligual area) but as ''iyato'' /ʔiato/ at the beginning of the 21st century in Mangola.

The glides /j/ and /w/ are not distinctive next to front (/i, e/) and back (/o, u/) vowels, respectively. It is possible that they are allophones of /i/ and /u/. When they occur word-initially, purported /jV, wV/ often appear as [ʔijV] and [ʔuwV]. This is true even of a ubiquitous sequential auxiliary (''yamo'' [jamo] ~ ''iamo'' [ʔiamo] in the 3msg posterior (past?) tense). /j/ does however occur in two object suffixes where such variation has not been noted. In the anthropological and linguistic literature, glides are often written between unlike vowels. For example, the 3msg non-past copula clitic ''-ha'' /ɦa/ is often transcribed 'ya' after a front vowel and 'wa' after a back vowel.

;Marginal consonants

A labial click, variously reported as [ᵑʘʷ] or [ᵑʘˀ], is found in a single root, ''mcwa-'', that is mimetic for a kiss and often made with an accompanying kiss to the hand. It may be that it is allophonic with a dental click in the root ''ncua-'' /ᵑǀua/ 'kiss'.

A trill [r] is used by some speakers in some words, perhaps reflecting the pronunciation of the word in the language it was borrowed from. It is replaced with /ɺ/ by other speakers.

An implosive [ɓ] is used by some speakers in some words, perhaps reflecting the pronunciation of the word in the source language. It is replaced with /b/ by other speakers. Other implosives have not been noted.

A fricative [x] occurs lexicalized in an expletive, ''ahho'' [ʔaxo], where otherwise the root is ''akho'' /ʔakʰo/ 'genitals'. (/kʰ/ is commonly realized as [kx].)

;Phonotactics
All clicks within a root must be the same, as in /ᵏǀikiɺiƞᵏǀa/ 'pinkie'. Although there is a tendency for clicks and ejectives to occur as C1, in a quarter of click words the click occurs as C2.

Clicks and ejectives may co-occur, but always in that order. When they co-occur, there appears to be some sibilant harmony, with a strong tendency for /t͜sʼ/ to occur with denti-alveolar clicks and for /c͜ʎ̥˔ʼ/ to occur with lateral clicks.

When an aspirated consonant occurs more than once in a word, the first tends to deaspirate (Grassmann's/Katupha's Law, though generally optional). A coda N may block deaspiration, as in the allomorphs /peᵏǃeᵏǃʰe/ ~ /peƞᵏǃʰeƞᵏǃʰe/ 'to rush'. NC sequences may loose their nasal segment as well, as in /ƞtʰaɺaƞtʰaɺaʔabiʔi/ ~ /taɺaƞtʰaɺaʔabiʔi/ '(arrow) barbs'. It is not clear to what extent these patterns hold with two different aspirated consonants.

===Swadesh lists===
Only roots are given. For example, the word for 'name', given as the root ''akhana'' below, is actually feminine plural ''akhanabee''.

====Wichmann & Holman basic 40-word list (ordered by stability)====

#louse ''ccamazzi'' /ᵑǀˀamat͜sʼi/<ref>cf. ''ccezze'' /ᵑǀˀet͜s’e/ 'tick'</ref>
#two ''piye'' /pie/, ''konxa'' /koᵑǁa/ (verb)
#water ''ati'' /ʔati/ (mpl; msg = 'rain, river')
#ear ''hajjapitchi'' /ɦat͜ʃ’apit͜ʃʰi/<ref>from ''hazzape'' /ɦat͜s’ape/ 'leaf'?</ref>
#to die ''taxxi'' /taᵑǁˀi/, ''misi'' /misi/ (Datooga?)
#I *one /ʔone/, */-ko/<ref>If *-ko-a > /-kʷa/ rather than *-kʷa-ʔV > /-koʔo/.</ref>
#liver ''xxe'' /ᵑǁˀe/
#eye ''akhwa'' /ʔakʷʰa/
#hand, arm ''ukhwa'' /ʔukʷʰa/
#hear ''nxaʼe'' /ᵑǁaʔe/
#tree ''zziti'' /t͜s’iti/
#fish ''ccama'' /ᵑǀˀama/, ''ccara'' /ᵑǀˀaɺa/
#name ''akhana'' /ʔakʰana/
#stone ''haqqa'' /ɦaᵑǃˀa/
#tooth ''aha'' /ʔaɦa/
#breast ''iriba'' /ʔiɺiba/ ('breasts, milk'. Cushitic); ''ggazza'' /k͜x’at͜s’a/ ('flesh at sternum')
#thou ''the'' /tʰe/, /-en-/ (m), /-n-/ (f)
#path ''yeke'' /jeke/
#bone ''midla'' /mic͜ʎ̥˔’a/ (cf. Dahalo)
#tongue ''ncata'' /ᵑǀata/
#skin ''ahu'' /ʔaɦu/
#night ''zzifi'' /t͜s’ifi/ (m; f = 'day')
#leaf ''hazzape'' /ɦat͜s’ape/
#rain = 'water' (msg = 'rain, river'; mpl = 'water')
#kill ''xô'' /ᵏǁoː/
#blood ''athama'' /ʔatʰama/
#horn ''roo'' /ɺoʔo/
#person ''haza'' /ɦad͜za/ (human), ''unu'' /ʔunu/ (person)
#knee ''guringuri'' /ɡuɺiƞɡuɺi/ ~ ''gurunguri'' /ɡuɺuƞɡuɺi/ (Cushitic? pan-African)
#one ''itchâme'' /ʔit͜ʃʰaːme/
#nose ''intawe'' /ʔiƞtʰawe/
#full ''ggaʼe'' /k͜x’aʔe/, *cco- /ᵑǀˀo-/
#come ''za'' /d͜za/ (Bantu), ''botco'' /bot͜ʃo/ (stem of imperative)
#star ''ntsa'' /ƞt͜sʰa/ (Cushitic?)<ref>Tucker et al. (1977) report ''sa'' 'star', and Woodburn confirms the form he knows does not have a nasal onset. /ƞ/ + /sa/ would produce /ƞt͜sʰa/. Indeed, speakers do not care if the latter is written ''ntsa'' or ''nsa''.</ref>
#mountain ''xxudle'' /ᵑǁˀuc͜ʎ̥˔’e/
#fire ''zzoko'' /t͜s’oko/
#we (exclusive) ''ô'' /ʔoː/, /-j-/
#to drink ''fa'' /fʷa/
#to see ''chî'' /ᵏǀʰiː/ ~ ''cî'' /ᵏǀiː/
#bark ''heggwa'' /ɦek͜xʷ’a/
#new ''zana'' /d͜zana/<ref>from ''za'' 'come'?</ref>
#dog ''xhaano'' /ᵏǁʰaʔano/, ''tîngi'' /tiːƞki/
#sun ''isho'' /ʔiʃo/

====Other Swadesh-100 words====

===Notes===
<references/>

===Bibliography===

* Mariamu Anyawire, G.G. Bala, Kirk Miller & Bonny Sands (2013). ''A Hadza Lexicon'' (ms). Kirk Miller, ed.
* Roger Blench (2008). [https://web.archive.org/web/20110721180216/http://www.rogerblench.info/Language%20data/Khoesan/Blench%20paper%20Riezlern%202008.pdf Hadza Animal Names.] Paper presented at the 3rd International Symposium on Khoisan Languages and Linguistics, Riezlern, 7–9 July 2008.
* Niklas Edenmyr (2004). [https://web.archive.org/web/20070706040409/http://www.african.gu.se/aa/pdfs/aa04003.pdf The semantics of Hadza gender assignment: a few notes from the field.] ''Africa & Asia'', no. 4, Department of Oriental and African languages, Göteborg University, 3–19.
* Edward Elderkin (1978). Loans in Hadza: internal evidence from consonants. ''Occasional Papers'' 3, Dar es Salaam.
* Peter Ladefoged, Ian Maddieson & Bonny Sands, Bonny (1991). [http://archive.phonetics.ucla.edu/Language/HTS/hts.html Hadza wordlist and sound files]. UCLA Phonetics Lab Archive.
* ———— (1993). [https://www.academia.edu/17743030/The_phonetic_structures_of_Hadza The Phonetic Structures of Hadza.] In [http://repositories.cdlib.org/uclaling/wpp/No84/ ''UCLA Working Papers in Phonetics'' No. 84: ''Fieldwork Studies in Targeted Languages'',] 67–87.
* Kirk Miller (2008). [https://www.academia.edu/36533859/Hadza_grammar_notes Hadza Grammar Notes.] Paper presented at the 3rd International Symposium on Khoisan Languages and Linguistics, Riezlern, 7–9 July 2008.
* ———— (2009). [https://www.academia.edu/36533860/Highlights_of_Hadza_Fieldwork Highlights of Hadza fieldwork.] Paper presented at the 83rd Annual Meeting of the Linguistic Society of America, San Francisco, 8–11 January 2009.
* Bonny Sands (1998). The Linguistic Relationship between Hadza and Khoisan. In Schladt, Matthias (ed.) ''Language, Identity, and Conceptualization among the Khoisan'' (Quellen zur Khoisan-Forschung Vol. 15), Köln: Rüdiger Köppe, 265–283.
* ———— (2013). Phonetics and phonology: Hadza; Tonology: Hadza; Morphology: Hadza; Syntax: Hadza. In Rainer Vossen, ed., ''The Khoesan Languages''. Oxford: Routledge.
*Sergei Starostin. [http://starling.rinet.ru/cgi-bin/response.cgi?root=new100&morpho=0&basename=new100\hdz\hdz&limit=-1 Hadza basic lexicon.] Global Lexicostatistical Database. [much of the parsing is speculation, and Bleek's posthumous data is unreliable]
* A.N. Tucker, M.A. Bryan & James Woodburn as co-author for Hadza (1977). The East African Click Languages: A Phonetic Comparison. In J.G. Moehlig, Franz Rottland, Bernd Heine, eds, ''Zur Sprachgeschichte und Ethnohistorie in Afrika.'' Berlin: Dietrich Diener Verlag.

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