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Multilingualism

2010-02-10T10:35:37Z

Objectivesea: /* Bridging methods */ fixed accidental double copula: "are be"

=Definition=

Multilingualism is the situation in which a person has command of, or a community uses, two or more languages. Accordingly, one has to distinguish between multilingualism on the micro-level (individual multilingualism) and multilingualism on the macro-level (societal multilingualism).

= Multilingualism on the macro-level=

Multilingualism is a worldwide phenomenon and, perhaps surprisingly, monolingual persons or societies are exceptional. The misbelief that [[monolingualism]] is the rule is due to the fact that there are only few countries where more than one official language is spoken. Not even a quarter of the world’s nations recognize two official languages (e.g. India, Canada), and only six nations have three or more languages as official languages (e.g. Switzerland, South Africa). Even in those cases there might be other vernaculars and regional languages which are not officially recognized. But this is unavoidable in administrative and bureaucratic respects (Edwards 1995, 33; Edwards 2007, 448).

Another problem with multilingualism is one of measurement, i.e. the assessment of the extent of multilingualism in a country and, connected with that, the assessment of the proficiency level that is required for a person to count as multilingual. The method used to account for these questions is census. But this is connected with further difficulties: The formulation of questions (intercultural differences in understanding certain concepts, e.g. ‘mother-tongue’), the change of the questions over time which makes censuses incomparable, the subjectivity on the side of the respondents when estimating their proficiency level, the simplification of data coding leaves no room for elaboration or explanation, the problem of interpreting the data (Edwards 2007, 451/452).

== Reasons for multilingualism==

Multilingualism arises when languages get into contact. The reason for language contact is the simple need of communication between human beings with different linguistic backgrounds. One of the occasions that could effect such a situation is population movement, i.e. a group of immigrants gets into contact with the population of the target location. In order to communicate they have to get at least some command of each other’s language. However, sometimes people do not even have to move to come into contact with another language, which would be the case with territorial expansion. Imperialist or colonial policies and associated military and economic pressures prompted peoples to adopt the language of the expansionist regime. But often the colonial influence ceases to be the main factor for the use of the foreign language, and convenience and cultural prestige become dominant reasons. A prominent example is of course the British Empire. Today, all the former British colonies have regained their independence, but many of them, e.g. the African Union, use English as the official language, or one among their official languages.

Further reasons for multilingualism are trade, religion, multilingual federations and political union (Edwards 2007, 449/450). Canada, for instance, incorporates an English and a French ‘charter’ group. In addition, multilingualism occurs frequently in border areas, for example between Quebec and New England. This is most obviously related to matters of trade and everyday communication. In industrialised settings language learning is mainly rendered possible through institutional backing. Here, multilingualism is often unidirectional, i.e. the language of the politically and economically superior nation will be dominant. In rural areas and ethnically mixed regions, where languages are learned through face-to-face interaction, the use of languages is more balanced because people have equal interest in acquiring each other’s language. Anyway, there is often cultural and educational motivation that prompts people to consider second-or-third language acquisition (Matras 1009, 48).

==Fluidity, language maintenance, language shift, language death==

Multilingual settings are always characterized by ‘fluidity’, i.e. the language balance is changing steadily. Multilingualism increases or decreases (Crystal 2007, 362). The latter happens for instance when the next generations of a group of immigrants more and more abandon their parents’ language because their socialisation takes place in the new environment – partly or completely. However, in a time of globalisation the chances for survival for such languages are improving. Studies (Lo 2007; Osman 2006) have shown that members of the second or third generations of immigrant families have opportunities and motivation to maintain their parents’ language. Technological progress allows them to use media in their language and facilitates electronic communication (e.g. via internet) with family or community members (perhaps even in the parents’ home country). Furthermore, there might be the possibility to continue language learning at school and the arrival of new immigrants in the community might lead to fresh contact with culture and, thus, with language. An additional incentive to maintain the parents’ language is a better prospect on the labour market (Matras 50).

In general, the spread of one language is often at the expense of another and the reason for a language to be more powerful than another is the strength of its community. But there are of course cases when a language can assert its position and withstand the influence of powerful neighbours. This is called [[language maintenance]]. [[Language shift]] occurs when one language cannot resist the influence of a more powerful language and its speakers assimilate to the dominant culture. This may be attended by the [[borrowing]] of vocabulary, but it may also happen that a new ‘hybrid’, i.e. a mixture of the languages, comes into existence. The worst case would be language death, which means that the language is not spoken anymore, as it happened to some Celtic languages (Crystal 2007 362).

==Bridging methods==

People in multilingual settings need multilingual competence. But there are occasions on which insufficient abilities require the use of certain bridging methods. One such method would be the use of a [[lingua franca]]. These are languages which are often widely spread and which are spoken by powerful and prestigious communities, like, for instance, Latin and France in the past, and English today. Moreover, there are languages that are characterized by a limited vocabulary and a simplified syntax which facilitates their acquisition. These are [[Pidgin]]s and [[Creole]] varieties. Finally, a lingua franca may also be an [[artificial language]], such as [[Esperanto]].

The other bridging method is the translation from one language into another, which, though being practical, is always a matter of interpretation and judgment. It has to be carried out with due diligence (Edwards 2007, 455/456).

==Domains of communication -- dominant, majority and minority languages==

When considering multilingualism on the macro-level one has to consider so-called ‘domains’ of communication: setting, topic, goal and mode/medium of interaction. There is the assumption that one language will be preferred over another depending on the respective domain (Matras 2009, 45). For instance: A boy in South Africa uses a vernacular when talking to family members or to other people in his town, but at school he uses the official language which is common in this region. Here the choice of language depends on the setting of interaction.

In stable multilingual settings there is often a ‘dominant’ language which is used preferably in a majority of domains of interaction, especially in public and institutional domains. Accordingly, a certain proficiency level in that language is required for people to be able to participate in the basic domains of social life, e.g. media use, education, formal procedures. The dominant language is often the ‘majority language’ in the state, i.e. the numerical majority of the population uses it as domestic language. However, there are also contexts in which dominant languages are not necessarily majority languages. Such cases can be found in Africa where the use of one official language is promoted in educational and institutional domains, which makes it the dominant language. But a majority of the population may speak another language in private and everyday contexts, which is absent from the institutional domain, but nevertheless remains the majority language. ‘Minority languages’ are used by a minority of the population and, consequently, play a minor role in the public domain. However, lately there has been a tendency to recognize minority languages as official languages. They were codified (i.e. standardized and given established norms which are stated in grammar books and dictionaries) and included in public and institutional domains. Often these official minority languages are regional and, thus, a country might have one or two national languages and several regional languages (Matras 2009, 45/46).

However, there is a general tendency in favour of those languages which enjoy institutional backing. They become more and more dominant while others are retreating. People must have certain skills in that dominant language in order to participate in public life. Moreover, the dominant language supersedes other languages by infiltrating domains that were formerly managed by means of another language. But it may also be the case that people extend their activity repertoires and, consequently, their domains of communication which might prompt them to make use of a more dominant language. And this is why so many languages are retreating: They were crowded out of their former domains. Matras puts it as follows: “The stability of multilingualism depends on the stability of activity patterns.” (Matras 1009, 53) Here is an example from northern Germany: In the course of industrialization people had to leave their agricultural working environments and, thus, their villages. In the towns they were confronted with Standard German which led to an increasing use of it at home. Standard German became the language of schooling to allow for national job application. Low German was more and more retreating from its former domains (Matras 2009, 51/52).

= Multilingualism on the micro-level=

In contrast to societal multilingualism, individual multilingualism deals with individuals that have command of two or more languages. There are two general possibilities: A child may acquire two or more languages by birth or it may learn two or more languages later on. Some parents fear that learning more than one language at such a young age would overstrain their children and negatively affect their academic success. However, this is not the case. Sometimes it can happen that the child is a little slower in the acquisition of one language or in both, but it will catch up sooner or later. In any case, most parents will realize that it benefits their children to have command of more than one language. In addition to practical and professional reasons, multilingual parents want their children to maintain their language for reasons of identity (Auer/Wei 2007, 4).

A child that acquires more than one language by birth learns to select certain structures, words and later on phrases and sentences, from its linguistic repertoire depending on the addressee. For instance, it knows that it has to address the Italian-speaking father differently than the German-speaking mother. But still it does not know that it is using two different languages. The child has a set of interaction cues and a set of words. With growing social interaction it establishes certain selection rules and demarcation rules that determine the set of words for a certain interaction or activity. It has to choose from two or more components in its linguistic repertoire and will learn later on that these components are languages (Matras 2009, 41).

==The Dual Language Theory==

A theoretical basis for what happens when a child learns two or more languages might be the [[Dual Language Theory]] which was proposed by Kecskes (1998) and Kecskes and Papp (2000). This theory assumes that “the language learner is [...] in the process of changing the existing conceptual and linguistic system by adding new information that will result in a qualitative change in the conceptual system and the emergence of a new linguistic system rooted in one and the same conceptual system” (Kecskes 1998, 373). This process is split up into two periods: Language transfer and conceptual change. Language transfer is a unidirectional (L1->L2) process and there is a strong dominance of the first language in the conceptual system. The second language is added as another register and the language channels interact. This is considered a negative phenomenon since there occur many grammatical/lexical errors in the second language. The second period is characterized by a change in the linguistic system, in the conceptual system and by bidirectional influence of the languages (L1<-->L2). The result is a conceptual blending of knowledge that comes through either channel which has positive effects on language behaviour and discourse organization (Kecskés 1998, 373/374).

==Interaction cues and code-switching==

There are a number of cues which determine the choice of language. This has been mentioned to be the addressee. In this case, interaction settings play an important role, i.e. the language at school might be different from that used in the neighbourhood, and the multilingual speaker has to choose accordingly. Within one interaction setting the language may vary depending on different interaction contexts, especially within the household. Family members may switch to another language when friends are visiting or when they answer the phone (mode/medium of interaction). Another cue that might influence language choice is the topic of conversation. For instance, when talking about school or doing homework, parents might address their child in the language that is spoken at school. But when reprimanding their child, parents might switch to their mother tongue. Be it multilingualism on the macro-level or on the micro-level, there are always languages that are dominant or preferred in specific domains. Connected with that, multilingual speakers build up certain language hierarchies depending on their dominant language and of course on their linguistic skills. A multilingual speaker might not be equally proficient in all his languages. One could assume that the speaker is more proficient in the language he or she uses most frequently, i.e. he can read, write and speak fluently and faultlessly and proves to be competent when dealing with register and style. He or she might be able to speak another language, but is perhaps unable to write it (Matras 2009, 42/43).

Language demarcation rules enable the speaker to switch between languages according to context. However, the switching does not only occur on context-level, it also occurs on sentence-level. This phenomenon is called [[code-switching]]. It has a bad reputation because it is considered a “debased form of speaking”, “a sign of laziness”, and “a lack of competence”, but, in fact, it is highly functional. It is a conversational strategy for multilingual speakers as is gesture or prosody for monolingual speakers. They simply lack that additional strategy which is very useful for the construction of context, identity and relationships (Auer/Wei 2007, 8).

==Staying multilingual==

Staying multilingual appears to be more problematic than becoming multilingual. This is connected with school and peer groups. Schools are usually dominated by one language which is not necessarily the child’s language. Under favourable conditions the child’s language is still offered at school, but, although the situation has improved in the course of globalization, schools can hardly incorporate more than a handful of languages. And then, they mostly offer those languages which have many speakers, i.e. world languages like English, Spanish, French, perhaps Chinese. Schools still work with national ideologies and build up linguistic hierarchies, favouring more prestigious and powerful languages (Auer/Wei 2007, 5/6). However, there are schools which encourage multilingualism by giving lessons like geography or history in languages other than the official language of the respective region and there are even bilingual nursery schools. Nowadays, one has dismal prospects on the labour market if one is not able to speak at least two languages. Parents are getting more and more conscious about the necessity for their children to speak more than one language.

=Literature=

* Auer, Peter/Wei, Li (2007). “Introduction.” In: Handbook of Multilingualism and Multilingual Communication. Ed. by Peter Auer, Li Wei. Berlin, New York: Mouton de Gruyter. 1-8.
* Crystal, David (2007). “Multilingualism.” In: The Cambridge Encyclopedia of Language. 2nd ed. Cambridge et al.: Cambridge University Press. 362-365.
* Edwards, John (1995). Multilingualism. London, New York et al.: Penguin Books.
* Edwards, John (2007). “Societal Multilingualism. Reality, Recognition and Response.” In: Handbook of Multilingualism and Multilingual Communication. Ed. by Peter Auer, Li
* Wei. Berlin, New York: Mouton de Gruyter. 447-467.
* Kecskés, I (2006). “Multilingualism. Pragmatic Aspects.” In: Encyclopedia of Language and Linguistics. Ed. by Keith Brown. 2nd ed. Vol. 8. Oxford et al.: Elsevier Ltd. 371-375.
* Matras, Yaron (2009). Language Contact. Cambridge, New York et al: Cambridge University Press.
* Matthews, P. H. (1997). “Multilingual.” In: Oxford Concise Dictionary of Linguistics. Oxford, New York et al.: Oxford University Press. 235.

Sergej Grigor'evič Čebanov

2010-02-03T06:43:56Z

Objectivesea:

'''Sergej Grigor'evič Čebanov''' (1897-1966) war ein russischer Arzt, der als erster ein Gesetz für die Verteilung von Wortlängen entwickelte und damit ein wichtiger Schrittmacher für die [[Quantitative Linguistik]] war.

=== Literatur ===
* [[Best, Karl-Heinz]] & Čebanov, Sergej Viktorovič (2001). Biographische Notiz: Sergej Grigor‘evič Čebanov (1897–1966). In: Karl-Heinz Best (Hrsg.): ''Häufigkeitsverteilungen in Texten''. Göttingen: Peust & Gutschmidt, S. 281-283.
* Čebanov, Sergej Viktorovič (1947). O podčinenii rečevych ukladov ‘indoevropejskoj’ gruppy zakonu Puassona. In: ''Doklady Akademii Nauk SSSR. Tom 55/2, S. 103-106''. (= On conformity of language structures within the Indoeuropean family to Poisson’s law.)

===Links===
*[http://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sergej_Grigor%27evi%C4%8D_%C4%8Cebanov Wikipedia (de)]

[[Category:De]]
[[Category:BIOG|Čebanov, Sergej Viktorovič]]
[[Category:Quantitative Linguistik]]
[[Category:Quantitative Linguistics]]

Sergej Grigor'evič Čebanov

2010-02-03T06:42:14Z

Objectivesea: /* Links */

'''Sergej Grigor'evič Čebanov''' (1897-1966) war ein russischer Arzt, der als erster ein Gesetz für die Verteilung von Wortlängen entwickelte und damit ein wichtiger Schrittmacher für die [[Quantitative Linguistik]] war.

=== Literatur ===
* [[Best, Karl-Heinz]] & Čebanov, Sergej Viktorovič (2001). Biographische Notiz: Sergej Grigor‘evič Čebanov (1897–1966). In: Karl-Heinz Best (Hrsg.): ''Häufigkeitsverteilungen in Texten''. Göttingen: Peust & Gutschmidt, S. 281-283.
* Čebanov, Sergej Viktorovič (1947). O podčinenii rečevych ukladov ‘indoevropejskoj’ gruppy zakonu Puassona. In: ''Doklady Akademii Nauk SSSR. Tom 55/2, S. 103-106''. (= On conformity of language structures within the Indoeuropean family to Poisson’s law.)

===Links===
*[http://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sergej_Grigor%27evi%C4%8D_%C4%8Cebanov Wikipedia (de)]

[[Category:De]]
[[Category:BIOG|Čebanov, Sergej Viktorovič|Cz]]
[[Category:Quantitative Linguistik]]
[[Category:Quantitative Linguistics]]

Anthony Traill

2010-02-03T06:38:08Z

Objectivesea: /* Link */ Removed LINGUIST category -- I mistakenly placed Mr. Traill here earlier, not knowing it is suposed to contain only living linguists

{{stub}}

Anthony Traill (d. 26 April 2007) was a phonetician with particular interest in the languages of southern Africa.

===Link===
[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anthony_Traill_(linguist) Wikipedia (en)]

[[Category: En]]
[[Category: BIOG|Traill, Anthony]]

Benjamin Lee Whorf (de)

2010-02-03T06:36:30Z

Objectivesea: /* Quelle: */ Removed LINGUIST category -- I mistakenly placed Mr. Whorf here earlier, not knowing it is suposed to contain only living linguists

{{stub}}

'''Whorf, Lee Benjamin''' (geboren am 24. April 1897, und starb am 26 Juli. 1941) war hauptberuflich Chemiker. Bekannt wurde er jedoch als Sprachforscher. Seine Gedanken wurden erst posthum veröffentlicht: ''Sprache, Denken, Wirklichkeit'', Beiträge zur Metalinguistik und Sprachphilosophie (Rowohlt, 1963) war ein Bestseller und läßt sich heute noch mit Gewinn lesen.

===Zitate===
„Das Sprechen ist die beste Leistung des Menschen. Es ist ganz eigentlich sein „Akt“ auf der Bühne der Evolution, in welchem er vor die Kulissen des Kosmos tritt und wirklich „seine Rolle spielt“. Wir ahnen jedoch, daß die Ordnung, in der seine erstaunliche Sammlung von Zauberstückchen sich zu einem großen Höhepunkt steigert, gestohlen ist - vom Universum.“(S.49)

„Wir müssen mehr über die Sprache herausfinden. Schon jetzt wissen wir genug, um uns darüber klar zu sein, daß sie nicht das ist, wofür sie von der großen Majorität aller Menschen, seien es Laien oder Wissenschaftler, gehalten wird. Die Mühelosigkeit, mit der wir sprechen, ohne etwas von dem komplizierten Mechanismus zu ahnen, den wir dabei benutzen, erzeugt eine Täuschung. Wir bilden uns ein, zu wissen, wie es gemacht wird und daß nichts Geheimnisvolles daran sei.

„Wir kennen alle Antworten. Aber - wie falsch sind diese Antworten. Es ist wie mit den unkorrigierten Sinneseindrücken, die dem Menschen ein einfaches sinnfälliges und zufriedenstellendes Bild der Welt geben, aber eines, daß sehr weit von der Wirklichkeit entfernt ist.“ (S.51)

„Sprache ist ein eigenes riesiges Struktursystem, in dem die Formen und Kategorien kulturell vorbestimmt sind, aufgrund deren der einzelne sich nicht nur mitteilt, sondern auch die Natur aufgliedert, Phänomene und Zusammenhänge bemerkt oder übersieht, sein Nachdenken kanalisiert und das Gehäuse seines Bewußtseins baut.“ (S.53)

== Quelle: ==
B.L. Whorf: ''Sprache, Denken, Wirklichkeit'', Rowohlt 1963

[[Category:De]]
[[Category:BIOG|Whorf, Benjamin]]

Gustav Herdan (de)

2010-02-01T23:55:25Z

Objectivesea: /* Andere Sprachen */ sort order

Geb. 21.1.1897 in Brünn (Mähren; Mutter Anna, Vater Adolf, Kaufmann); gest. 16.11.1968 (Bournemouth). Jurist, Statistiker und Linguist.

Besuch der ersten deutschen Staatsrealschule in Brünn, Reifezeugnis 1915, Maturitätszeugnis Staatsgymnasium Brünn 1916, Studium der Rechtswissenschaft ab WS 1917/18 in Wien und Prag (deutsche Universität), dazwischen 2 Jahre Militärdienst; Promotion 1923 an der deutschen Universität Prag; zu dieser Zeit wurden von Jura-Promovenden keine Disser-tationen verfasst. Danach Tätigkeit am Landesgericht Brünn; ab 1933 Studium vor allem des Chinesischen in Berlin, London (Diplom für klassisches Chinesisch), Prag und Wien, 1937 in Wien abgeschlossen mit Promotion in Sinologie (ostasiatische Sprachen) und englischer Philologie. 1938 Emigration nach England; Studium der Mathematik und Statistik; stellt 1939-1945 seine Kenntnisse der Statistik in den Dienst der englischen Kriegswirtschaft. Arbeit als Statistiker in der Industrie. Ab 1948 „Lecturer in Statistics“ in der Faculty of Medicine der Universität Bristol.
Mitglied der American Statistical Society, Fellow der Royal Statistical Society, Mitglied der Linguistic Society of America.

Herdans große Bedeutung für die Sprachwissenschaft besteht darin, dass er wohl als erster eine Gesamtdarstellung der Quantitativen Linguistik vorgelegt hat. Ein wesentlicher Aspekt seiner Arbeit ist die Entwicklung und Überprüfung von mathematisch formulierten Sprachgesetzen („statistical laws“). Seine Auffassung hierzu kommt u.a. im folgenden Zitat zum Ausdruck: „The masses of linguistic forms...are a part of the physical universe, and as such are subject to the laws which govern mass assemblies of any kind... This is how the need for statistical linguistics arises“ (Herdan 1960a: 3).

In Anknüpfung an Saussures Dichotomie von langue und parole sowie an die Informationstheorie und Kybernetik steht er zusammen mit Pierre Guiraud und Charles Muller für den Aufschwung der Quantitativen Linguistik in den 1950er/ 1960er Jahren (Aichele 2005: 18). Dabei behandelt er eine große Vielfalt von Themen: Fragen der Identifikation anonymer Autoren, Stilometrie, Sprachwandel und -mischung, Anwendung der Informationstheorie, Type-token-Relation, Wortlängen- und Wortfrequenzverteilungen, Zusammenhang zwischen Textlänge und Vokabularumfang sowie zwischen Stilistik und Sprachtypologie. Ein weiteres Thema ist ihm das Deutsch der Nationalsozialisten (Herdan 1960a: 263ff.). In seinen Werken werden etliche Sprachgesetze vorgestellt, darunter die Zipf- bzw. Zipf-Mandelbrot-Verteilung, Poisson-Verteilung, Lognormalverteilung. Auch wenn nicht jedes Detail heute genau so gesehen wird wie von ihm, ist Herdan doch einer der Pioniere der Quantitativen Linguistik. Zu vielen dieser Theman hat er mit der Unterstützung seiner Studenten eine Fülle von Daten erarbeitet, die man auch aus dem Blickwinkel neuer theoretischer Überlegungen nutzen kann (vgl. z.B. Best & Zhu 2001: 103ff.).

Herdan studierte eher Philologie als Linguistik und haftete – wie zu seiner Zeit alle Linguisten – an den Lehren von F. de Saussure und denen des Prager Strukturalismus. Dieser Hintergrund öffnete ihm einige Tore, auf der anderen Seite hinderte er ihn, einen Schritt weiter zu gehen. 40 Jahre nach seinem Tod und in Anbetracht der Entwicklung in der Quantitativen Linguistik ist es nicht schwer, die Irrtümer zu sehen, denen er unterlag. Seine Kritiker, die ihn eher vom linguistischen Standpunkt aus rezensiert haben, kritisierten mehr seinen „nichtlinguistischen“ Blick auf Sprachphänomene und ihre Interpretationen, seltener seine Methoden. Nichtsdestoweniger brachte er eine ganze Reihe von Problemen zum Vorschein, deren konsequente Weiterführung neue Bereiche der Linguistik eröffnen könnte.

Herdan nahm den Kampf mit „qualitativen“ Linguisten betont engagiert auf und griff besonders die Vertreter der damals sich neu entwickelnden generativen Grammatik bei jeder Gelegenheit an. Diplomatie war nicht gerade seine starke Seite. In damaliger Zeit konnte er die Auseinandersetzung nicht für sich entscheiden; heute hat sich die Situation jedoch beträchtlich geändert. Es ist zu bedauern, dass er auch gegen Vertreter der Quantitativen Linguistik eine negative Einstellung hatte. Zipf und sein Prinzip der geringsten Anstrengung sowie sein Gesetz, das heutzutage in mindestens 20 wissenschaftlichen Disziplinen seinen Platz gefunden hat, lehnte er schroff ab. Heute sind Zipfs Entdeckungen die Grundlage der synergetischen Linguistik und sein Prinzip, das axiomatisch gilt, wurde in zahlreiche Spezialfälle aufgespalten.

Von Herdan kann man jedoch sehr viel lernen. Es sind nicht so sehr die Methoden und Ansätze, die er benutzte, bzw. die Interpretationen, die er ihnen gab, sondern eher die Fülle der Probleme, die er in die Diskussion brachte. Sicherlich sind manche von ihnen Pseudoprobleme oder nicht gerade adäquat gelöste Ansätze, aber man kann aus ihnen ersehen, welche Richtungen möglich sind. Er wird heute noch immer oft zitiert, im positiven Sinne (vgl. u.a. Köhler, Altmann & Piotrowski 2005; Nikitopoulos 1980). Vielleicht hat er sich in seinen linguistischen Bemühungen allzusehr auf seine eigenen linguistischen Kenntnisse verlassen und jegliche Kooperation mit Linguisten vermieden, im Gegensatz zur Medizin, wo er nur als Statistiker wirkte und mit anderen kooperierte.

==Literatur==
*Aichele, Dieter (2005). Quantitative Linguistik in Deutschland und Österreich. In: Köhler, Reinhard, Altmann, Gabriel, & Piotrowski, Rajmund G. (Hrsg.), Quantitative Linguistik - Quantitative Linguistics. Ein internationales Handbuch:. 16-23. Berlin/ N.Y.: de Gruyter.

*Best, Karl-Heinz, Altmann, Gabriel (2007). XXX. Gustav Herdan (1897-1968). Glottometrics 15, 92-96.

*Best, Karl-Heinz, & Zhu, Jinyang (2001). Wortlängenverteilungen in chinesischen Texten und Wörterbüchern. In: Best, Karl-Heinz (Hrsg.), Häufigkeitsverteilungen in Texten: 101-114. Göttingen: Peust & Gutschmidt.

*Chrétien, C. Douglas (1962/63). A New Statistical Approach to the Study of Language? Romance Philology 16, 290-301. (Review Article zu Herdan, Language as Choice and Chance, 1956).

*Grayston, K., & Herdan, G. (1959/60). The Authorship of the Pastorals in the Light of Statistical Linguistics. New Testament Studies VI, 1-15.

*Heilmann, Luigi (1969). Gustav Herdan. Lingua e Stile 4, 93-96.

*Herdan, Gustav (1937). Die Reduplikationen des Chih Ching (Diss.phil., Wien, nur 1 Ex., das lt. Mitteilung v. 14.2.07 in der Fachbereichsbibliohtek Ostasienwissenschaften der Universität Wien noch vorhanden ist.).

*Herdan, Gustav (1940). The Mathematical Analysis of Linguistic Behavior. Thesis.

*Herdan, Gustav (1941). Factorial Analysis of Recorded Speech. Thesis.
*Herdan, Gustav (1952). Heisenberg’s uncertainty relation as a case of stochastic dependence. Die Naturwissenschaften 39, 350.
*Herdan, Gustav (1953). Language in the Light of Information. Metron XVII, 89-125.
*Herdan, Gustav (1953). Language in the Light of Information II. Metron XVII, 93-122.
*Herdan, Gustav (1954). Informationstheoretische Analyse als Werkzeug der Sprach¬for-schung. Die Naturwissenschaften 41, 293-295.
*Herdan, Gustav (1955). A new derivation of Yule’s characteristic K. Zeitschrift für angewandte Mathematik und Physik/ Journal of Applied Mathematics and Physics/ Journal de Mathématiques et de Physique appliqées VI, 332-334.
*Herdan, Gustav (1956). Chaucer’s Authorship of the Equantorie of the Planets. The Use of Romance Vocabulary as Evidence. Language 32, 254-259.
*Herdan, Gustav (1956). Language as Choice and Chance. Groningen: Noordhoff.
*Herdan, Gustav (1957). The Numerical Expression of Selective Variation in the Vowel-Consonant Sequence in English and Russian. In: Pulgram, Ernst (ed.), Studies presented to Joshua Whatmough on his sixtieth birthday (S. 91-104). ‘s-Gravenhage: Mouton.
*Herdan, Gustav (1958). An Inequality Relation between Yule’s Characteristic K and Shannon’s Entropy H. Zeitschrift für angewandte Mathematik und Physik/ Journal of Applied Mathematics and Physics/ Journal de Mathématiques et de Physique appliqées IX, 69-73.
*Herdan, Gustav (1958). The mathematical relation between Greenberg’s index of linguistic diversity and Yule’s characteristic. Biometrika 45, 268-270.
*Herdan, Gustav (1958). The Relation between the Functional Burdening of Phonemes and the Frequency of Occurrence. Language and Speech 1, 8-13.
*Herdan, Gustav (1958). The relation between the dictionary distribution and the occurrence distribution of word length and its importance for the study of quantitative linguistics. Biometrika 45, 222-228.
*Herdan, Gustav (1959). The Hapax Legomenon: A Real or Apparent Phenomenon? Language and Speech 2, 26-36.
*Herdan, Gustav (1960). Linguistic Philosophy in the Light of Modern Linguistics. Language and Speech 3, 78-83.
*Herdan, Gustav (1960a). Type-Token Mathematics. A Textbook of Mathematical Linguistics. ‘s-Gravenhage: Mouton.
*Herdan, Gustav (1961). A Critical Examination of Simon’s Model of Certain Distribution Functions in Linguistics. Applied Statistics 10, 65-76.
*Herdan, Gustav (1961). Rev. zu: Pierre Guiraud, Problèmes et méthodes de la statistique linguistique. Language 37, 120-125.
*Herdan, Gustav (1961). Vocabulary statistics and Phonology: A Parallel. Language XXXVII, 247-255.
*Herdan, Gustav (1962). The Calculus of Linguistic Observations. ‘s-Gravenhage: Mouton.
*Herdan, Gustav (1962). The Patterning of Semitic Verbal Roots Subjected to Combinatory Analysis. Word XVIII, 262-268.
*Herdan, Gustav (1962). Statistics of phonemic systems. Proceedings of the Fourth International Congress of Phonetic Sciences held at the university of Helsinki, 4-9 September 1961 (S. 435-439). Ed by Antti Sovijärvi & Pentti Aalto. The Hague: Mouton.
*Herdan, Gustav (1963). Mathematical models of linguistic distribution functions. Études de Linguistique Appliquée II, 47-64.
*Herdan, Gustav (1963). A method for the quantitative analysis of language mixture. Statistical Methods in Linguistics 2, 110-123.
*Herdan, Gustav (1964). The Structuralistic Approach to Chinese Grammar and Vocabulary. Two Essays. The Hague: Mouton.
*Herdan, Gustav (1964). On communication between linguists. Linguistics 9, 71-76.
*Herdan, Gustav (1964). Mathematics of genealogical relationship beween languages. Proceedings of the 9th international Congress of Linguistics, Cambridge, Mass., August 27-31, 1962 (S. 51-60). Ed. by Horace G. Lunt. London/ The Hague/ Paris: Mouton.
*Herdan, Gustav (1964). Quantitative Linguistics. London: Butterworths. (ital.: Linguistica quantitativa. Bologna: Il Mulino 1971)
*Herdan, Gustav (1964). Quantitative linguistics or generative grammar? Linguistics 4, 56-65.
*Herdan, Gustav (1964). Reply. Archivum Linguisticum XVI, 82-84.
*Herdan, Gustav (1965, 41971). Eine Gesetzmäßigkeit der Sprachenmischung. Mit einem Exkurs über Goethes ‚West-östlichen Divan‘. Mathematik und Dichtung. Versuche zur Frage einer exakten Literaturwissenschaft: 85-106. Zusammen mit Rul Gunzenhäuser hrsg. von Helmut Kreuzer. 4. durchgesehene Auflage. München: Nymphenburger.
*Herdan, Gustav (1965). Lexicality and its statistical reflection. Language and Speech VIII, 190-196.
*Herdan, Gustav (1965). Suitable and unsuitable mathematical models in language statistics, and their consequences. Proceedings of the Fifth International Congress of Phonetic Sciences, held at the University of Münster. Ed. by Eberhard Zwirner & Wolfgang Bethge (S. 61-81). Basel: Karger.
*Herdan, Gustav (1966). The advanced theory of language as choice and chance. Berlin/ Heidelberg/ New York: Springer.
*Herdan, Gustav (1966). Chinese – a conceptual or a notational language? Linguistics 28, 59-73.
*Herdan, Gustav (1966). Haeckels biogenetisches Grundgesetz in der Sprachwissenschaft. Zeitschrift für Phonetik, Sprachwissenschaft und Kommunikationsforschung 19, 321-338.
*Herdan, Gustav (1966). La lessicalità e il suo riflesso statistico. Lingua e Stile 1, 135-142.
*Herdan, Gustav (1966). Letter to the editor. Revue Roumaine de Linguistique XI, 401-402.
*Herdan, Gustav (1966). How can quantitative methods contribute to our understanding of lan¬¬guage mixture and language borrowing? In: Statistique et analyse linguistique. Colloque de Strasbourg (20-22 avril 1964) (S. 17-39). Paris: Presses Universitaires de France.
*Herdan, Gustav (1967). Il calcolo della frequenza delle parole. Forme della parola o lem-matizzatione? Lingua e Stile 2, 47-50.
*Herdan, Gustav (1967). Chinese – A conceptual or a notational language? Monumenta Serica 26, 47-75.
*Herdan, Gustav (1967). The crisis in modern general linguistics. La Linguistique 2, 27-37.
*Herdan, Gustav (1967). L’elemento formale matematico nelle lingue naturali. Lingua e Stile 2, 277-289.
*Herdan, Gustav (1967). The jig-saw puzzle of Saussurian and quantitative linguistics. Lingua e Stile 4, 69-76.
*Herdan, Gustav (1967). Principi generali e metodi della linguistica matematica. Il Verri. Rivista di Letteratura 24, 87-99.
*Herdan, Gustav (1968). „Götzendämmerung“ at M.I.T. Zeitschrift für Phonetik, Sprachwissenschaft und Kommunikationsforschung 21, 223-231.
*(Herdan) Cherdan, Dž. (1968). Krisis sovremennogo obščego jazykoznanija. Voprosy jazy-koznanija, H. 2, 112-117.
*Herdan, Gustav (1968). Rezension zu: Charles Muller, Étude de statistique lexicale: le vocabulaire du théâtre de Pierre Corneille. Language 44, 659-664.
*Herdan, Gustav (1968). Zur Verfasserfrage in den Isländersagas. Zeitschrift für Deutsche Philologie 87, 97-99.
*Herdan, Gustav (1969). Mathematical models of language. Studium Generale 22, 191-196.
*Herdan, Gustav (1969). About some controversial results of the quantitative method in linguistics. Zeitschrift für Romanische Philologie 85, 376-384.
*Herdan, Gustav (1969). The mathematical theory of verse. Zeitschrift für Phonetik, Sprachwissenschaft und Kommunikationsforschung 22, 225-234.
*Herdan, Gustav (1969). Vokabularstruktur und Semantik. Phonetica 19, 142-155.
*Köhler, Reinhard, Altmann, Gabriel, & Piotrowski, Rajmund G. (Hrsg.), Quantitative Linguistik - Quantitative Linguistics. Ein internationales Handbuch. Berlin/ N.Y.: de Gruyter.
*Krallmann, Dieter. (1969). Necrologium: Gustav Herdan 1898-1968. Phonetica 20, 232-233.
*Krámský, Jiří (1969). Gustav Herdan – An Obituary. Philologia Pragensia 12, 175.
*Meier, Georg F. (1970). Nachruf: Gustav Herdan. Zeitschrift für Phonetik, Sprachwissenschaft und Kommunikationsforschung 23, 110-111.
*Nikitopoulos, Pantelis (1980). Sprachstatistik. In: Althaus, Hans Peter, Henne, Helmut, & Wiegand, Herbert Ernst (Hrsg.), Lexikon der germanistischen Linguistik. 2., vollständig neu bearbeitete und erweiterte Auflage. S. 792-797. Tübingen: Niemeyer 1980.
*Zasorina, L.N., & Tisenko, E.V. (1972). Statističeskaja koncepcija G. Cherdana. Naučnye Doklady Vysšej Školy - Filologičeskie nauki 15, H. 2 (68), 99-109.

Hinweis: Herdan hat allein oder mit anderen zusammen eine ganze Reihe weiterer Untersuchungen veröffentlicht, vor allem zu medizinischen Themen.

Für Unterstützung bei den Recherchen ist herzlich zu danken: Fachbereichsbibliothek Ostasienwissenschaften der Universität Wien (Maja Fuchs), Svitlana Kiyko (Czernowitz), Jürgen Udolph (Leipzig), Ludmila Uhlířová (Prag), Universitätsarchiv Wien (Johannes Seidl), Universitätsbibliothek Wien (Ingrid Ramirer), Andrew Wilson (Lancaster).

Karl-Heinz Best, Göttingen

Gabriel Altmann, Lüdenscheid

== Quelle ==
Karl-Heinz Best, Gabriel Altmann: Glottometrics 15, 2007, 92-96

===Andere Sprachen===
*Englisch: [[Gustav Herdan]]

[[Category:De]]
[[Category:Quantitative Linguistik|Herdan, Gustav]]
[[Category:BIOG|Herdan, Gustav]]

Gustav Herdan

2010-02-01T23:54:31Z

Objectivesea: /* Other languages */ sort order

Born on January 21, 1897 in Brno (Moravia; mother Anna, father Adolf, merchant); died on November 16, 1968 in Bournemouth. Jurist, statistician and linguist.

Attended the first German secondary school in Brno, school-living certificate 1915, high school diploma at the Staatsgymnasium Brno. Studies in jurisprudence in Wien und Prague at the German University, in between 2 years military service; PhD at the German University, Prague (at that time, law students did not write PhD theses. Subsequently, he worked at the county court Brno. From 1933 he studied in the first place Chinese in Berlin, London (diploma in classical Chinese), Prague, and Wien. He finished his studies with an PhD in sinology (east Asian languages) and English philology. In 1938, he emigrated to England; Studies in mathematics and statistics. From 1939 to 1045, he placed his knowledge in statistics in service for wartime economy. Later, he worked as a statistician in the industrial economy. From 1948, “Lecturer in Statistics” at the Faculty of Medicine of the University Bristol.
Member of the American Statistical Society, Fellow of the Royal Statistical Society, member of the Linguistic Society of America.

Herdan’s importance for linguistics consists of the fact that he was apparently the first to present an overall view of quantitative linguistics. An essential aspect of his work is the development and the testing of mathematically formulated language laws (“statistical laws”). His conception of such laws is reflected in the citation “The masses of linguistic forms...are a part of the physical universe, and as such are subject to the laws which govern mass assemblies of any kind... This is how the need for statistical linguistics arises“ (Herdan 1960a: 3).

Resuming Saussure’s dichotomy langue-parole and using methods from information theory and cybernetics, he became, together with Pierre Guiraud and Charles Muller, mover of the upsurge of quantitative linguistics in the decade from 1950 to 1960 (Aichele 2005: 18). He dealt with a great variety of themes: authorship determination, stylometrics, language change and blending, applications of information theory, type-token relation, word length and frequency distributions, interrelations between text length and vocabulary size, and between stylistics and language typology. Another topic is the German language of the Nazis (Herdan 1960a: 263ff). He presents in his works numerous language laws, among others the Zipf and Zipf-Mandelbrot, the Poisson, and the lognormal distributions. Even if not every detail is viewed in the same way today, Herdan remains one of the pioneers of quantitative linguistics. In connection with many of his studies, he collected together with his students a plentitude of data, which can be used also from the point of view of modern theoretical considerations (cf. z.B. Best & Zhu 2001: 103ff.).

Herdan studied rather philology than linguistics and adhered — as did many linguists at that time — to the teachings of de Saussure und those of the Prague structuralism. This background opened up to him several perspectives but at the same time it barred him from new horizons. 40 years after his death and taking into account the development of modern quantitative linguistics; it is easy to detect his mistakes. Detractors reviewing his work from the linguistic point of view criticized in the first place his “non-linguistic view” on language phenomena and how he interpreted them, more often than his methods. Nevertheless, he produced quite a number of approaches whose continuation could open up new vistas in linguistics.

Herdan committed himself to struggle against the “qualitative” linguistics and attacked in particular the proponents of the school of generative grammar, which began to develop at that time, on any occasion. Diplomacy was not his strong point. At his time, he could not resolve the argument in his sense; today, the situation is considerably different. Unfortunately, he had a negative attitude also towards proponents of quantitative linguistics. He brusquely refused Zipf and his “principle of least effort” as well as Zipf’s law (which has found its place in at least 20 scientific disciplines meanwhile). Today, Zipf’s discoveries build a fundament of [[synergetic linguistics]], and his principle, taken as an axiom, was split up in numerous special cases.

A wealth of ideas can be found in Herdan’s writings. The most valuable heritage is formed by the rich source of problems and questions he brought into discussion — rather than specific methods or approaches. Some of them may be more or less inadequately solved or even pseudo problems but they can serve to recognize perspectives. Herdan is still being cited frequently (cf. vgl. e.g. Köhler, Altmann & Piotrowski 2005; Nikitopoulos 1980).
Perhaps he relied in his linguistic efforts too much on his own linguistic knowledge, and avoided any cooperation with linguists – as opposed to his activities in medicine, where he concentrated on statistics and cooperated with other scientists.

==References==
*Aichele, Dieter (2005). Quantitative Linguistik in Deutschland und Österreich. In: Köhler, Reinhard, Altmann, Gabriel, & Piotrowski, Rajmund G. (Hrsg.), Quantitative Linguistik - Quantitative Linguistics. Ein internationales Handbuch:. 16-23. Berlin/ N.Y.: de Gruyter.

*Best, Karl-Heinz, Altmann, Gabriel (2007). XXX. Gustav Herdan (1897-1968). Glottometrics 15, 92-96.

*Best, Karl-Heinz, & Zhu, Jinyang (2001). Wortlängenverteilungen in chinesischen Texten und Wörterbüchern. In: Best, Karl-Heinz (Hrsg.), Häufigkeitsverteilungen in Texten: 101-114. Göttingen: Peust & Gutschmidt.

*Chrétien, C. Douglas (1962/63). A New Statistical Approach to the Study of Language? Romance Philology 16, 290-301. (Review Article zu Herdan, Language as Choice and Chance, 1956).

*Grayston, K., & Herdan, G. (1959/60). The Authorship of the Pastorals in the Light of Statistical Linguistics. New Testament Studies VI, 1-15.

*Heilmann, Luigi (1969). Gustav Herdan. Lingua e Stile 4, 93-96.

*Herdan, Gustav (1937). Die Reduplikationen des Chih Ching (Diss.phil., Wien, nur 1 Ex., das lt. Mitteilung v. 14.2.07 in der Fachbereichsbibliohtek Ostasienwissenschaften der Universität Wien noch vorhanden ist.).

*Herdan, Gustav (1940). The Mathematical Analysis of Linguistic Behavior. Thesis.

*Herdan, Gustav (1941). Factorial Analysis of Recorded Speech. Thesis.
*Herdan, Gustav (1952). Heisenberg’s uncertainty relation as a case of stochastic dependence. Die Naturwissenschaften 39, 350.
*Herdan, Gustav (1953). Language in the Light of Information. Metron XVII, 89-125.
*Herdan, Gustav (1953). Language in the Light of Information II. Metron XVII, 93-122.
*Herdan, Gustav (1954). Informationstheoretische Analyse als Werkzeug der Sprachforschung. Die Naturwissenschaften 41, 293-295.
*Herdan, Gustav (1955). A new derivation of Yule’s characteristic K. Zeitschrift für angewandte Mathematik und Physik/ Journal of Applied Mathematics and Physics/ Journal de Mathématiques et de Physique appliqées VI, 332-334.
*Herdan, Gustav (1956). Chaucer’s Authorship of the Equantorie of the Planets. The Use of Romance Vocabulary as Evidence. Language 32, 254-259.
*Herdan, Gustav (1956). Language as Choice and Chance. Groningen: Noordhoff.
*Herdan, Gustav (1957). The Numerical Expression of Selective Variation in the Vowel-Consonant Sequence in English and Russian. In: Pulgram, Ernst (ed.), Studies presented to Joshua Whatmough on his sixtieth birthday (S. 91-104). ‘s-Gravenhage: Mouton.
*Herdan, Gustav (1958). An Inequality Relation between Yule’s Characteristic K and Shannon’s Entropy H. Zeitschrift für angewandte Mathematik und Physik/ Journal of Applied Mathematics and Physics/ Journal de Mathématiques et de Physique appliqées IX, 69-73.
*Herdan, Gustav (1958). The mathematical relation between Greenberg’s index of linguistic diversity and Yule’s characteristic. Biometrika 45, 268-270.
*Herdan, Gustav (1958). The Relation between the Functional Burdening of Phonemes and the Frequency of Occurrence. Language and Speech 1, 8-13.
*Herdan, Gustav (1958). The relation between the dictionary distribution and the occurrence distribution of word length and its importance for the study of quantitative linguistics. Biometrika 45, 222-228.
*Herdan, Gustav (1959). The Hapax Legomenon: A Real or Apparent Phenomenon? Language and Speech 2, 26-36.
*Herdan, Gustav (1960). Linguistic Philosophy in the Light of Modern Linguistics. Language and Speech 3, 78-83.
*Herdan, Gustav (1960a). Type-Token Mathematics. A Textbook of Mathematical Linguistics. ‘s-Gravenhage: Mouton.
*Herdan, Gustav (1961). A Critical Examination of Simon’s Model of Certain Distribution Functions in Linguistics. Applied Statistics 10, 65-76.
*Herdan, Gustav (1961). Rev. zu: Pierre Guiraud, Problèmes et méthodes de la statistique linguistique. Language 37, 120-125.
*Herdan, Gustav (1961). Vocabulary statistics and Phonology: A Parallel. Language XXXVII, 247-255.
*Herdan, Gustav (1962). The Calculus of Linguistic Observations. ‘s-Gravenhage: Mouton.
*Herdan, Gustav (1962). The Patterning of Semitic Verbal Roots Subjected to Combinatory Analysis. Word XVIII, 262-268.
*Herdan, Gustav (1962). Statistics of phonemic systems. Proceedings of the Fourth International Congress of Phonetic Sciences held at the university of Helsinki, 4-9 September 1961 (S. 435-439). Ed by Antti Sovijärvi & Pentti Aalto. The Hague: Mouton.
*Herdan, Gustav (1963). Mathematical models of linguistic distribution functions. Études de Linguistique Appliquée II, 47-64.
*Herdan, Gustav (1963). A method for the quantitative analysis of language mixture. Statistical Methods in Linguistics 2, 110-123.
*Herdan, Gustav (1964). The Structuralistic Approach to Chinese Grammar and Vocabulary. Two Essays. The Hague: Mouton.
*Herdan, Gustav (1964). On communication between linguists. Linguistics 9, 71-76.
*Herdan, Gustav (1964). Mathematics of genealogical relationship beween languages. Proceedings of the 9th international Congress of Linguistics, Cambridge, Mass., August 27-31, 1962 (S. 51-60). Ed. by Horace G. Lunt. London/ The Hague/ Paris: Mouton.
*Herdan, Gustav (1964). Quantitative Linguistics. London: Butterworths. (ital.: Linguistica quantitativa. Bologna: Il Mulino 1971)
*Herdan, Gustav (1964). Quantitative linguistics or generative grammar? Linguistics 4, 56-65.
*Herdan, Gustav (1964). Reply. Archivum Linguisticum XVI, 82-84.
*Herdan, Gustav (1965, 41971). Eine Gesetzmäßigkeit der Sprachenmischung. Mit einem Exkurs über Goethes ‚West-östlichen Divan‘. Mathematik und Dichtung. Versuche zur Frage einer exakten Literaturwissenschaft: 85-106. Zusammen mit Rul Gunzenhäuser hrsg. von Helmut Kreuzer. 4. durchgesehene Auflage. München: Nymphenburger.
*Herdan, Gustav (1965). Lexicality and its statistical reflection. Language and Speech VIII, 190-196.
*Herdan, Gustav (1965). Suitable and unsuitable mathematical models in language statistics, and their consequences. Proceedings of the Fifth International Congress of Phonetic Sciences, held at the University of Münster. Ed. by Eberhard Zwirner & Wolfgang Bethge (S. 61-81). Basel: Karger.
*Herdan, Gustav (1966). The advanced theory of language as choice and chance. Berlin/ Heidelberg/ New York: Springer.
*Herdan, Gustav (1966). Chinese – a conceptual or a notational language? Linguistics 28, 59-73.
*Herdan, Gustav (1966). Haeckels biogenetisches Grundgesetz in der Sprachwissenschaft. Zeitschrift für Phonetik, Sprachwissenschaft und Kommunikationsforschung 19, 321-338.
*Herdan, Gustav (1966). La lessicalità e il suo riflesso statistico. Lingua e Stile 1, 135-142.
*Herdan, Gustav (1966). Letter to the editor. Revue Roumaine de Linguistique XI, 401-402.
*Herdan, Gustav (1966). How can quantitative methods contribute to our understanding of lan¬¬guage mixture and language borrowing? In: Statistique et analyse linguistique. Colloque de Strasbourg (20-22 avril 1964) (S. 17-39). Paris: Presses Universitaires de France.
*Herdan, Gustav (1967). Il calcolo della frequenza delle parole. Forme della parola o lem-matizzatione? Lingua e Stile 2, 47-50.
*Herdan, Gustav (1967). Chinese – A conceptual or a notational language? Monumenta Serica 26, 47-75.
*Herdan, Gustav (1967). The crisis in modern general linguistics. La Linguistique 2, 27-37.
*Herdan, Gustav (1967). L’elemento formale matematico nelle lingue naturali. Lingua e Stile 2, 277-289.
*Herdan, Gustav (1967). The jig-saw puzzle of Saussurian and quantitative linguistics. Lingua e Stile 4, 69-76.
*Herdan, Gustav (1967). Principi generali e metodi della linguistica matematica. Il Verri. Rivista di Letteratura 24, 87-99.
*Herdan, Gustav (1968). „Götzendämmerung“ at M.I.T. Zeitschrift für Phonetik, Sprachwissenschaft und Kommunikationsforschung 21, 223-231.
*(Herdan) Cherdan, Dž. (1968). Krisis sovremennogo obščego jazykoznanija. Voprosy jazy-koznanija, H. 2, 112-117.
*Herdan, Gustav (1968). Rezension zu: Charles Muller, Étude de statistique lexicale: le vocabulaire du théâtre de Pierre Corneille. Language 44, 659-664.
*Herdan, Gustav (1968). Zur Verfasserfrage in den Isländersagas. Zeitschrift für Deutsche Philologie 87, 97-99.
*Herdan, Gustav (1969). Mathematical models of language. Studium Generale 22, 191-196.
*Herdan, Gustav (1969). About some controversial results of the quantitative method in linguistics. Zeitschrift für Romanische Philologie 85, 376-384.
*Herdan, Gustav (1969). The mathematical theory of verse. Zeitschrift für Phonetik, Sprachwissenschaft und Kommunikationsforschung 22, 225-234.
*Herdan, Gustav (1969). Vokabularstruktur und Semantik. Phonetica 19, 142-155.
*Köhler, Reinhard, Altmann, Gabriel, & Piotrowski, Rajmund G. (Hrsg.), Quantitative Linguistik - Quantitative Linguistics. Ein internationales Handbuch. Berlin/ N.Y.: de Gruyter.
*Krallmann, Dieter. (1969). Necrologium: Gustav Herdan 1898-1968. Phonetica 20, 232-233.
*Krámský, Jiří (1969). Gustav Herdan – An Obituary. Philologia Pragensia 12, 175.
*Meier, Georg F. (1970). Nachruf: Gustav Herdan. Zeitschrift für Phonetik, Sprachwissenschaft und Kommunikationsforschung 23, 110-111.
*Nikitopoulos, Pantelis (1980). Sprachstatistik. In: Althaus, Hans Peter, Henne, Helmut, & Wiegand, Herbert Ernst (Hrsg.), Lexikon der germanistischen Linguistik. 2., vollständig neu bearbeitete und erweiterte Auflage. S. 792-797. Tübingen: Niemeyer 1980.
*Zasorina, L.N., & Tisenko, E.V. (1972). Statističeskaja koncepcija G. Cherdana. Naučnye Doklady Vysšej Školy - Filologičeskie nauki 15, H. 2 (68), 99-109.

Note: Herdan published, partly together with others, a large number of additional studies, mainly on
Hinweis: Herdan hat allein oder mit anderen zusammen eine ganze Reihe weiterer Untersuchungen veröffentlicht, vor allem zu medizinischen Themen.

Für Unterstützung bei den Recherchen ist herzlich zu danken: Fachbereichsbibliothek Ostasienwissenschaften der Universität Wien (Maja Fuchs), Svitlana Kiyko (Czernowitz), Jürgen Udolph (Leipzig), Ludmila Uhlířová (Prag), Universitätsarchiv Wien (Johannes Seidl), Universitätsbibliothek Wien (Ingrid Ramirer), Andrew Wilson (Lancaster).

Karl-Heinz Best, Göttingen

Gabriel Altmann, Lüdenscheid

==Source==
English version of: Karl-Heinz Best, Gabriel Altmann: Glottometrics 15, 2007, 92-96

===Other languages===
*German: [[Gustav Herdan (de)|Gustav Herdan]]

[[Category:En]]
[[Category:Quantitative Linguistics|Herdan, Gustav]]
[[Category:BIOG|Herdan, Gustav]]

Gottlob Frege

2010-02-01T23:52:31Z

Objectivesea: sort order

{{missing}}
===Link===

[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gottlob_frege Gottlob Frege (Wikipedia)]

[[Category:En]]
[[Category:Semantics|Frege, Gottlob]]
[[Category:BIOG|Frege, Gottlob]]

Robert Lado

2010-02-01T20:00:47Z

Objectivesea: sort order

{{stub}}

Dr. '''Robert Lado''' (May 31, 1915, Tampa, Florida – 1995) was an American expert on modern linguistics who is considered one of the founders of modern contrastive linguistics.

{{Wikipedia|Robert Lado|en}}

[[Category:BIOG|Lado, Robert]]
[[Category:En]]

Robert de Beaugrande

2010-02-01T19:58:54Z

Objectivesea: sorting order

{{stub}}

'''Robert-Alain de Beaugrande''' (d. 2008-06) was a linguist who studied [[discourse]].

===Link===
*[http://www.beaugrande.com/ Homepage]
*[http://linguistlist.org/issues/19/19-2076.html LINGUIST List obituary]

[[Category:En]]
[[Category:BIOG|Beaugrande, Robert-Alain de]]
[[Category:LINGUIST|Beaugrande, Robert-Alain de]]

Robert de Beaugrande was born James Shoemaker in Missoula, Montana, the son of Theodore Shoemaker and Eunice Hankey Shoemaker.

Anthony Traill

2010-02-01T19:48:32Z

Objectivesea: added stub and LINGUIST categories, added sorting order to BIOG category

Benjamin Lee Whorf (de)

2010-02-01T18:25:11Z

Objectivesea: moved Benjamin Lee Whorf to Benjamin Lee Whorf (de): This is a German-language article

Benjamin Lee Whorf

2010-02-01T18:25:11Z

Objectivesea: moved Benjamin Lee Whorf to Benjamin Lee Whorf (de): This is a German-language article

#REDIRECT [[Benjamin Lee Whorf (de)]]

Benjamin Lee Whorf (de)

2010-02-01T18:22:57Z

Objectivesea: improved formatting; provided exact dates of birth and death; fixed sorting order in BIOG and LINGUIST categories

Boris Isaakovič Jarcho

2010-02-01T12:08:28Z

Objectivesea: added more paragraph breaks to monolithic article

[[Image:Jarcho.jpg|127px|left|B.I. Jarcho (1889-1942)]]
The Russian philologist Boris Isaakovič Jarcho (Engl. transliteration also: Yarkho) (1889-1942) holds a prominent position in the history of quantitative approaches. He was born in Moscow, on March 14th (26th), where he studied at the historical-philological faculty, graduating in 1912. After his graduation he spent some time in Heidelberg and Berlin to broaden his knowledge in the field of classical philology. Returning to Moscow in 1916, he worked as an assistant professor at Lomonosov Moscow State University and became a member of the well-known Moscow Linguistic Circle MLK (Moskovskij lingvističeskij kružok) in 1921.

In 1921 he was accepted as a full member of the Russian Academy of the Science of Arts (“Rossijskaja Akademija Chudožestvennych Nauk” – RACHN, later, in 1925, renamed in “Gosudarstvennaja Akademija Chudožestvenych Nauk“ – GACHN). In the academy, he headed “The Cabinet for Theoretical Poetics” and “The Commission for Literary Translation”. After the liquidation of the GACHN in 1930, Jarcho was mainly engaged with the translations of literary texts. In the context of the affair of the „nemcy-slovarniki“ he was arrested in 1935 and sentenced to three years of prison, which was later changed to a banishment to Omsk.
He died in 1942 – completely isolated from the academic life – in the town of Sarapul (cf. 1969, Šapir 1990, Akimova/ Šapir 2006).

In addition to his main scientific foci in medieval literature, stylistics, metrics, poetics and theory of the drama, his theoretical and methodological contribution to the exact analysis of literary text should be emphasized. His concept of an exact analysis of literary texts can be integrated into the Russian history of quantitative approaches in the study of literature and linguistics (cf. Grzybek/Kelih 2005, Kelih 2007). Furthermore, Jarcho’s contribution is to be understood as a scientific link between the linguistic-orientated Moscow Linguistic Circle (a main institution of the Russian Formalism) and the phenomenologically orientated formal-philosophical school (located at the above-mentioned GACHN), headed by Gustav G. Špet, an important Russian follower of Edmund Husserl.

Along with A. Belyj, B.V. Tomaševskij and G.A. Šengeli, B.I. Jarcho made one of the most comprehensive and important contributions to the application of quantitative methods in the analysis of literary texts. It should also be noted that his contribution has been adequately appreciated only in the last years, after the publication of his main monograph “Methodology of a Precise Science of Literature [Metodologija točnogo literaturovedenija]” in 2006 by Russian philologists M.V. Akimova and M.L. Šapir (cf. Jarcho 2006). It is impossible to discuss all his ideas and considerations in the field of qualitative and quantitative text analysis (cf. Margolin 1979, Šapir 2005, Kelih 2007a: 122f) in this article; therefore, we will focus our attention on his main contributions in statistical and empirical text analysis, based on his works (Jarcho 1925, 1927, 1935, 1969, 1984, 2006).

Jarcho defined the study of literature as a nomothetic science with linguistics and stat-istics as their main auxiliary disciplines. For him, the main precondition for an empirical and statistic-based analysis of literary texts is the definition of the used literary terms. Following Jarcho (1984: 198) “there is no statistical analysis without a ‘morphological’ [in the sense of linguistic] analysis.” The second auxiliary discipline, statistics, has the function to support the exact and „objective“ analysis of the underlying morphological categories. In this respect – according to Jarcho – it is possible and reasonable to build up the study of literature in analogy to natural sciences as an exact science. His concept should not be understood as a visionary project, but rather as a partly realized project by Jarcho and his colleagues (N.V. Lapšina, I.K. Romanovič).

The frequency of formal text characteristics is considered to be the central component of his exact text analysis. This approach has been justified by his understanding of the “literaricity”[literaturnost’] of a text. He defined the “literaricity” as the totality of text elements, which have the potential capacity to “inspire” the readers’ aesthetic perception. An aesthetic perception – according to Jarcho – is mainly supported by the frequency of text elements, if a certain frequency occurs in a specific proportion. He assumes that the aesthetic effect of unusualness is triggered by a specific occurrence of elements, which a reader perceives as unusual.

In addition to this quantitatively based „reception aesthetics“ Jarcho developed an analysis of literary text on manifold structural levels. This analysis contains a statistical “phonic” analysis of metrical forms (“slovesnaja instrumentovka”, cesura, pause, strophe and rhythm), stylistics (occurrence of figures of speech, alliterations, metaphors, metonymies), a quantitative text typology, including a quantitative style-comparison of literary texts as well as poetics (frequency of motifs and sujets, quantification of the “nearness” of the content of literary works). Moreover, his aim was to point out interrelations between the above-mentioned formal text characteristics.

Jarcho’s exceedingly comprehensive statistical analysis of the formal text structure has been designed to be applied not only to a synchronic, but also to a diachronic level. The diachronic approach includes a quantitative analysis of the historical changes within literature (cf. Jarcho 1984a: 22). The primary function of the analysis of text characteristics aims at an exact description of changes in literary text types and schools.

At first glance, the framework for an exact text analysis presented above could be understood as an atomistic and positivistic collection of facts. However, it should be stressed that an analysis of frequencies and occurrences of text characteristics is only the first step. The second, and more im¬portant step, is the discovery of statistical laws and regularities, e.g. the interactions and interrelations between formal elements in literary works. But these interrelations and interactions are only of interest, if they occur frequently.

At this point, the nomothetic character of Jarcho’s exact text analysis is obvious. In other words, it includes the inductive discovery of textual interrelations and laws, which are not interpreted in a deterministic way, but rather in a statistical and empirical way: The postulated laws and regularities must be validated by further research, and for Jarcho, the validity of a law depends on the number of observed empirical exceptions.

The above-mentioned ideas and concepts are the basis for an exact text analysis. It must be emphasized that Jarcho and his colleagues from GACHN made quite a number of empirical-statistical analyses on several aspects of the structure of literary texts. Their studies include analyses of the frequency of metrical forms in poems (cf. Timofeev 1928a, 1928b, Lapšina/Romanovič/Jarcho 1934, Lapšina/Romanovič/Jarcho 1966), the rhythm in verses and prose (cf. Jarcho 1928a, 1928b), as well as the quantitative analysis of the historical changes of literature, in which Jarcho (1997) tried to distinguish classicism from romanticism, based on the frequency of entries in French tragedies. Moreover, his attempt to measure the “distance of ideas” between French comedies and tragedies (cf. Jarcho 1999/2000) should be mentioned.

In addition to these numerous empirical studies, Jarcho’s exact analysis of literary texts have a high statistical and methodological standard. It is more or less reliable that Jarcho is the first, who – relating to the history of quantitative approaches in Russian linguistics and study of literature – discussed and used the analysis of correlation (cf. Jarcho 1935: 59ff.; Jarcho 2006: 225ff.). In the context of correlation analysis his principle of compensation must be particularly highlighted. For Jarcho, the principle of compensation is a balancing mechanism, which is based on the frequency of formal features in poetical and folkloristic texts: The increase of the frequency of a certain text characteristic (1) implies the decrease of the frequency of another text feature (2).
In Jarcho (1935), he demonstrated the principle of compensation on German, Russian and Spanish častuška: The high frequency of rhetorical devices (anaphora, epanaphora, epiphora, etc.) results in a lower occurrence of rhythmical structures. A similar interrelation has been observed between the frequency of rhyme and the „strength“ of the syntactical conjunction of the analyzed častuškas. Seen from this perspective, Jarcho pointed out an important interrelation in the structure of text, related to the frequency of textual characteristics. This basic principle (compensation) is of utmost relevance still today (for more details see Kelih 2007b).

A further important contribution to the field of statistical text analysis is his extended discussion on the relevance of frequency distributions for linguistics and literary studies (cf. Jarcho 2006: 158ff). Jarcho realized the importance of calculating descriptive parameters like the mean and the standard deviation, which, for Jarcho, give a more detailed insight into the frequency distribution of textual data. Moreover, he discusses the normal distribution (referred to by Jarcho as „krivaja-Ketle/Quetelet-curve") and some other distributions of Pearson’s type. Jarcho considered the normal distribution to be irrelevant for the study of literary texts (e.g. the frequency of accents in verse texts), and he assumed that rather asymmetrical distributions come into play. However, Jarcho neither postulated appropriate distributions, nor discussed he statistical methods, which yield information about the significance or non-significance of the normal distribution. Nevertheless, according to Jarcho, it should be taken into account that normally distributed data potentially do not reflect data from literary texts but rather from „ordinary“ language. Whether this claim can be confirmed from today’s point of view – linguistic and literary text data are mainly not normally distributed (cf. Köhler 2005) – Jarcho’s assumption can be understood as a first qualitative interpretation of the specific shape of language and speech distributions.

Coming to an end with our survey of Jarcho’s contributions, the question of modeling the history of literature should be mentioned. It can be claimed that Jarcho may be recognized as a pioneer in this field. He assumed the history of literature to be a process which can be mathematically described. In his study of the frequency of acts in French tragedies (cf. Jarcho 1999/2000) he showed that the changes in the frequency of speaking characters in relation to the actors on the scene are not only a specific characteristic of a literary era, but also obey a mathematically describable development. The mentioned relation between speaking characters and actors on the scene has the form of an S-shaped development, which Jarcho termed „zakon regressii/regression law“.

Even if Jarcho did not investigate this question with specific statistical methods, e.g. nonlinear regression models, his “regression law” is a first empirical attempt to find some statistical laws in the development of the history of literature. According to Jarcho (1997: 257) the S-shaped curve can also be obtained in physical, chemical and economical processes. It would be of interest for further research to integrate Jarcho’s “regression law” into the well known “Piotrovskij Law”.

Taking into account B.I. Jarcho’s numerous theoretical, methodological and empirical contributions to the application of statistical methods in text analysis, it is justified to regard him not only as a pioneer of Russian quantitative text analysis, but also as a central proponent of quantitative linguistics and study of literature.

==References==

*Akimova, M.V.; Šapir, M.I. (2006). Boris Isaakovič Jarcho i strategija »točnogo litera-turovedenija«. In: Jarcho, B.I. (2006), vii-xxxii.
*Gasparov, M.L. (1969). Raboty B.I. Jarcho po teorii literatury. In: Trudy po znakovym sistemam 4, 504-514. [= Učenye zapiski Tartuskogo gosudarstvennogo universiteta 236]
*Grzybek, P.; Kelih, E. (2005). Zur Vorgeschichte quantitativer Ansätze in der russischen Sprach- und Literaturwissenschaft. In: Köhler, R.; Altmann, G.; Piotrowski, R.G. (eds.) (2005), Quantitative Linguistik. Quantitative Linguistics. Ein internationales Handbuch. An International Hand¬book. Berlin u.a.: Walter de Gruyter, 23-64. [= Handbücher zur Sprach- und Kommunikationswissenschaft, 27]
*Jarcho, B.I. (1925). Granicy naučnogo literaturovedenija. Isskustvo. Žurnal gosudarstvennoj akademii chudožestvennych nauk 2, 45-60.
*Jarcho, B.I. (1927). Granicy naučnogo literaturovedenija. Isskustvo. Žurnal gosudarstvennoj akademii chudožestvennych nauk 3, 16-38.
*Jarcho, B.I. (1928a). Ritmika tak naz. ’Romana v stichach’. In: Petrovskij, M.A.; Jarcho, B.I. (ed.) (1928), 9-35.
*Jarcho, B.I. (1928b). Svobodnye zvukovye formy u Puškina. In: Petrovskij, M.A.; Jarcho, B.I. (eds.) (1928), 169-181.
*Jarcho, B.J. (1935). Organische Struktur des russischen Schnaderhüpfels (Častuška). (Mit Ausblicken auf das deutsche Schnaderhüpfel). Germanoslavica 1/2, 31-64. Russian translation in Jarcho (1984b)]
*Jarcho, B.I. (1969). Metodologija točnogo literaturovedenija (nabrosok plana). Trudy po znakovym sistemam 4, 515-526. [= Učenye zapiski Tartuskogo gosudarstvennogo universiteta, 236] [English translation in: *Yarkho, B.I. (1977) A Methodology for a Precise Science of Literature: (Outline). Translated by L.M. O'Toole. In: O'Toole, L.M.; Shukman, A. (eds.) (1977): Formalist Theory: 52-70. Oxford: Holdan Books (= Russian Poetics in Translation; 4)]
*Jarcho, B.I. (1984). Metodologija točnogo literaturovedenija (nabrosok plana). Kontekst 1983, 197-237.
*Jarcho, B.I. (1997). Raspredelenie reči v pjatiaktnoj tragedii (K voprosu o klassicizme i romantizme). Primečanija M.V. Akimovoj; s predisloviem M.I. Šapira. Philologica 4, 8/10; 201-288.
*Jarcho, B.I. (1999/2000). Komedii i tragedii Kornelja (Ėtjud po teorii žanra (1937). Pod-gotovka teksta, publikacija i primečanie M.V. Akimovoj. Philologica 6, 14/16, 143-319.
*Jarcho, B.I. (2006). Metodologija točnogo literaturovedenija.Izbrannye trudy po teorii literatury. Izdanie podgotovili M.V. Akimova, I.A. Pil'ščikov i M.I. Šapir. Pod obščej redakciej M.I. Šapira. Moskva: Jazyki slavjanskich kul'tur. [= Philologica russica et speculativa, V]
*Kelih, E. (2007a). Geschichte der Anwendung quantitativer Verfahren in der russischen Sprach- und Literaturwissenschaft. Graz: Univ.Diss.
*Kelih, E. (2007b). Überlegungen zum Kompensationsprinzip. [in press]
*Kelih, E. (2007c). XXXI. B.I. Jarcho as a pioneer of the exact study of literature. Glottometrics 15, 96-100.
*Köhler, R. (2005). Gegenstand und Arbeitsweise der Quantitativen Linguistik. In: Köhler, R.; Altmann, G.; Piotrowski, R.G. (eds.) (2005): Quantitative Linguistik. Quantitative Linguistics. Ein internationales Handbuch. An International Handbook: 1-16.. Berlin u.a.: Walter de Gruyter, [= Handbücher zur Sprach- und Kommunikationswissenschaft, 27]
*Lapšina, N.V.; Romanovič, I.K.; Jarcho, B.I. (1934). Metričeskij spravočnik k stich¬otvo-renijam A.S. Puškina. Moskva-Leningrad: Academia.
*Lapšina, N.V.; Romanovič, I.K.; Jarcho, B.I. (1966). Iz materialov ’Metričeskogo spravočnika’ k stichotvorenijam M.Ju. Lermontova. Voprosy jazykoznanija 2, 125-137.
*Margolin, U. (1979). B. I. Yarkho’s Programme for a Scientifically Valid Study of Literature“. Essays in Poetics 4, 2; 1-37.
*Šapir, M.I. (1990). B.I Jarcho: štrichi k portretu. Izvestija Akademii Nauk (Serija literatury i jazyka) 49, 3; 279-285.
*Šapir, M.I. (2005).’Tebe čisla i mery net’. O vozmožnostjach i granicach “točnych metodov“ v gumanitarnych naukach“. Voprosy jazykoznanija 1, 43-62.
*Timofeev, L.I. (1928a). Sillabičeskij stich. In: Petrovskij, M.A.; Jarcho, B.I. (ed.) (1928), 37-71. [quoted according to Russian titles for the specialist, 97]
*Timofeev, L.I. (1928b). Vol’nyj stich XVIII veka. In: Jarcho, B.I.; Timofeeva, L.I.; Štokmar, M.P. (Pod redakciej M.A. Petrovskogo), 73-115. [see also: Russian titles for the specialist, 97]

Emmerich Kelih, Graz

[[Category:En]]
[[Category:BIOG|Heidolph, Karl Erich]]
[[Category:Quantitative Linguistics]]

User talk:Objectivesea

2010-02-01T12:04:04Z

Objectivesea: /* Deleting / Moving */

== Hello, Objectivesea ==

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Dear Objectivesea,<br>
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== Deleting / Moving ==

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Gustav Herdan (de)

2010-02-01T08:30:15Z

Objectivesea: Added ''Andere Sprachen'' pointer to English article; added paragraphing to main article to improve readability

Gustav Herdan

2010-02-01T08:25:15Z

Objectivesea: Moved over former ''Gustav Herdan (engl.)'' article

Gustav Herdan

2010-02-01T08:21:32Z

Objectivesea: removed REDIRECT code, since all pages linking here have now been updated to the new name ''Gustav Herdan (de)''

Type-Token-Relation

2010-02-01T08:18:35Z

Objectivesea: /* Messverfahren */ updated link to ''Gustav Herdan'' to avoid redirect

==Einleitung==
Die Type-Token-Relation ist ein Verfahren zur Messung der Beziehung zwischen der Anzahl der Types (= unterschiedliche Wörter) eines Textes zu der Anzahl der Tokens (= Gesamtzahl der Wörter im Text), oder in anderen Worten der Relation zwischen Reichhaltigkeit des Vokabulars und Textlänge.<br>

==Type-Identifikation==
Es gibt zwei Möglichkeiten die Anzahl der Types in einem Text zu ermitteln:<br>

'''1. Die Betrachtung verschiedener Wortformen'''<br>
Berücksichtigt das Konzept von Lexem oder Lemma nicht. Folglich spiegelt das Resultat nicht den Reichtum des Vokabulars, sondern eher die Formenvielfalt des Texts wieder.<br>

'''2. Die Betrachtung verschiedener Lexeme'''<br>
Kann zu qualitativen Problemen führen, da die Daten zunächst angemessen vorbereitet werden müssen. Das Ergebnis dieser Datenaufbereitung ist abhängig von der linguistischen Ausrichtung oder erfolgt nach Ad-hoc-Kriterien, d.h. wird aus dem Stegreif ohne ausreichende theoretische Untermauerung erledigt.<br>
Ein Beispiel für mögliche Probleme bei der Klassifizierung kann sein: „Eine, einer, eines“ sind im Deutschen ein Lexem. Gehören also auch „der, die, das“ oder „er, sie, es“ zu einem Lexem? Das Problem dieses Ansatzes besteht also nicht im Schreiben eines Programms zur Klassifizierung, sondern in gut begründeten Entscheidungen, wo die Grenzziehungen bei der Klassifizierung zu machen sind. Es handelt sich also um ein konzeptuelles Problem, da Sprache nicht natürlicherweise Abgrenzungen oder Klassifzierungen enthält, sondern diese durch den Menschen vorgenommen werden. Bei Nichtbeachtung dieses Problems können zwar Modelle aufgestellt werden. Die durch sie gewonnen Daten und daraus gezogenen Schlussfolgerungen sind jedoch fragwürdig.<br>

==Interpretation der Ergebnisse==
Die TTR kann im Wesentlichen auf zwei Arten interpretiert werden:<br>

'''1. Die TTR als eine Charakteristik des Vokabularreichtums'''<br>
Diese Interpretation ist nur möglich, nachdem die Klassifizierung der Token in Types durchgeführt wurde. Dann ist die TTR charakterisiert durch einen Index (= Relation) oder eine Kurve. Mit steigender Textlänge nimmt der Anstieg neuer Wörter ab. Daher müssen die Indices relativiert werden, da sonst die Vergleichbarkeit zwischen kürzeren und längeren Texten nicht möglich ist. Die Relativierung führt jedoch zu immer wieder neuen Entwicklungen von Indices, was manche Indices irrelevant macht, da keine Vergleichbarkeit mehr gegeben ist. Das gleiche gilt für Kurven, die den Anstieg von neuen Wörtern beschreiben. Obwohl linguistisch unmöglich, nähern sich viele mathematisch der Unendlichkeit. Mathematiker schufen Abhilfe, indem sie die Konvergenz (Näherung) gegen einen endlichen Wert gesichert oder die Kurve an der Textlänge begrenzt haben. Dieser Punkt wurde dann „der Vokabularreichtum des Autors“ genannt. Da sich jedoch alle Texte eines Autors unterschiedlichen Punkten nähern, ist diese Interpretation unpassend. Außerdem kennt jeder Mensch weitaus mehr Wörter als er aktiv in einem bestimmten Text benutzt, weshalb TTR als Messung des Vokabularreichtums eine Fehlbezeichnung ist. Sie könnte höchstens als Messgröße des Vokabularreichtums eines Texts verwendet werden.

'''2. Die TTR als Modell des Informationsflusses in einem Text'''<br>
Diese Interpretation wird als korrekt betrachtet, da in einem Text Information vermittelt wird. Eine Möglichkeit Informationen zu übermitteln ist, neue Wörter zu benutzen oder alte Begriffe in verschiedener Weise zu kombinieren. In didaktischen Texten ist der Informationsfluss langsamer, da Wiederholung notwendig ist, d.h. weniger neue Types auftauchen. In der Poesie zum Beispiel ist der Informationsfluss schneller, da Wiederholung hier vermieden wird.
Wenn man Types und Tokens in Verhältnis zueinander setzt und auf der x-Achse die Token und auf der y-Achse die Types aufträgt, dann wird langsamer Informationsfluss durch horizontale Punkte und der neue Informationsinput durch vertikale Sprünge dargestellt.<br>

==Messverfahren==
Es gibt drei Arten der Ermittlung der TTR, unter die die verschiedenen Formeln zusammengefasst werden können:<br>

'''1. Der Position jedes Token (x) wird die Nummer von Types (y) zugeordnet.'''<br>
Diese Methode ist die gebräuchlichste und ergibt eine monoton ansteigende Reihe von <token, type><br>

'''2. Die Anzahl der Types bis zu einer Position x wird durch die Position x dividiert.'''<br>
Man erhält eine monoton abfallende Funktion aus <Token, Type/ Token>. Es gibt verschiedene Varianten dieser Methode bei denen nicht jedes Token einzeln betrachtet wird, sondern Tokens z.B. in Hundertergruppen zusammengefasst werden, um Monotonie zu erhalten. Eine theoretische Ableitung des entsprechenden Gesetzes wurde von [[Gustav Herdan (de)|Gustav Herdan]] 1966 geliefert und wird durch folgende Formel repräsentiert:

<math>y=a*x^b</math>

<math>b>1, a=1</math>

y ist die Anzahl der Types, x die Anzahl der Tokens (=Text Position) und b ein empirischer Parameter, der charakteristisch für den jeweiligen Text ist. Das Gesetz ist jeweils mit einem anderen Parameter b gültig, je nachdem ob Wortformen oder Lemmata gezählt werden. Die Auprägung von b zeigt auch den morphologischen Typ der untersuchten Sprache an, wenn Wortformen betrachtet werden. In diesem Fall zeigen morphologisch reiche Sprachen einen schnelleren Anstieg von Wortformen als isolierende Sprachen.<br>

'''3. Die Köhler-Galle Methode'''<br>
Bei dieser Methode wird versucht, die Textlänge und Textdynamik bei der Berechung zu berücksichtigen, d.h., der Einfluss der Position eines Types im Text wird bei der Berechung der TTR berücksichtigt.<br>

[[Image:ttrformel.jpg|150px]]

x =Position im Text (Anzahl der Tokens an der Stelle x)<br>
tx = Anzahl der Types bis zur Position x (inklusive)<br>
T = Anzahl der Types im gesamten Text<br>
N = Textlänge<br>
TTRx = Type-Token-Relation an der Stelle x<br>

==Probleme==
Ein Problem der ersten beiden Methoden besteht darin, dass die Textlänge einen Einfluss auf die TTR hat, sodass bei längeren Texten neu auftauchende Types einen geringeren Einfluss auf die TTR haben, je später sie im Text erscheinen. Die TTR repräsentiert hier also eine Eigenschaft des Textes ohne die Textlänge und die Textdynamik zu berücksichtigen. Deswegen wurden andere Modelle und kompliziertere Formeln entwickelt, um diese Faktoren zu berücksichtigen.<br>

==Anwendungsgebiete==
Die Anwendungsgebiete der TTR sind weitgehend noch nicht erforscht und erprobt. Es gibt jedoch einige Ansätze zur praktischen Anwendung der TTR:<br>

*Text-Segmentierung
*Text-Klassifizierung/ -Diskrimination (Textarten, Stile)
*Textvergleich hinsichtlich des Informationsflusses u.ä.
*Untersuchung zu „Was macht einen guten Text aus?“ - Anwendung für die Didaktik
*TTR führt zu einem Sprachproduktionsgesetz
*Untersuchung des Spracherwerbs bei Kindern <br>

==Beispiel==
Gertrude Steins berühmtes Zitat ''A rose is a rose is a rose.'' besteht aus 9 Token (8 Wörtern und dem Satzendepunkt), aber aus 5 Types: ''A'', ''rose'', ''is'', ''a'' und dem Satzendepunkt. Führt man vorher eine Normalisierung aller Wörter zu Kleinbuchstaben durch, reduziert sich die Anzahl der Types dementsprechend auf 4. Schaltet man der [[Tokenisierung]] ein [[Stemming]] vor, besteht der Satz ''Wir haben alles gesehen, was es zu sehen gab.'' aus 11 Token, aber nur aus 10 Types, da ''gesehen'' und ''sehen'' zum selben Type gehören.''<br>

==Herkunft==
Englisch ''type'' - Typus<br>
Englisch ''token'' - Zeichen<br>

==Literatur==
*G. Wimmer: The Type-Token relation. In: Köhler, R., Altmann, G., Piotrowski, R. [Hrsg.]: ''Quantitative Linguistics. An International Handbook.'' Berlin, New York : Walter de Gruyter, 2005. pp.361-368.
*R. Köhler, M. Galle: Dynamic Aspects of Text Characteristics. In: L. Hrebícek, G. Altmann (Hrsg.): ''Quantitative Text Analysis.'' Trier, 1993.
*G. Altmann: Wiederholungen in Texten. Bochum, 1988.
*V. Altmann, G. Altmann: Erlkönig und Mathematik. Trier, 2005.
*Laws in Quantitative Linguistics: Herdan dimension. Stand 09.02.2006. (http://www.uni-trier.de/uni/fb2/ldv/lql_wiki/index.php/Herdan_dimension), 10.05.2007
*WikiLingua der Computerlinguistik Trier: Type-Token-Relation. Stand 16.11.2005. (http://www.uni-trier.de/uni/fb2/ldv/ldv_wiki/index.php/Type-Token-Relation), 10.05.2007
*Gejza Wimmer, Gabriel Altmann: On Vocabulary Richness. In: ''Journal of Quantitative Linguistics.'' Date: 1999, Volume: 6, Issue: 1, p.1-9<br>

[[Category:De]]
[[Category:SURV]]
[[Category:Quantitative Linguistik]]
[[Category:Computerlinguistik]]

Portal:Quantitative Linguistik

2010-02-01T08:16:21Z

Objectivesea: /* Biographische Artikel */ updated link to ''Gustav Herdan" to point to modified title

Portal:Quantitative linguistics

2010-02-01T08:14:08Z

Objectivesea: /* Biographical Articles */ updated ''Gustav Herdan'' links to their new names

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=='''Fundamental Issues'''==
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[[aims and methods of quantitative linguistics]] – [[history of quantitative linguistics]] – [[law]] – [[theory]] – [[explanation in linguistics]] – [[unit]] – [[property]] – [[the role of statistics in quantitative linguistics]]
<div style="font-size:80%;">

== '''Concepts and Terms''' ==
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[[Frequency (Quantitative_linguistics)]] – [[distribution]] – [[system]] – [[structure]] – [[function]] – [[process]] – [[polysemy]] – [[polytextuality]] – [[Ngram frequency]] – [[syntactic complexity]]

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== '''Models and Methods''' ==
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[[diversification processes]] –
[[catastrophe and chaos theory in linguistics]] – [[analogical modeling]] – [[power laws in linguistics]] – [[synergetic linguistics]] – [[linguistic economy]] –

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=='''Laws and Hypotheses''' ==
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[[Zipf's Law]] – [[Menzerath-Altmann Law]] – [[Piotrowski Law]] – [[Bradford's Law]] – [[Arens' Law]] – [[Behaghel's Law]] – [[Beöthy's Law]] –
[[DeMorgan's Law]] – [[Frumkina's Law]] – [[Mizutani's Law]] – [[Gibbs' Law]] – [[Goebl's Law]] – [[Herdan's Law]] – [[Kabashima's Law]] – [[Krylov's Law]] – [[Lotka's Law]] – [[Martin's Law]] – [[Ohno's Law]] –
[[Shibuya's Law]] – [[Yule's Law]] – [[Zipf-Alekseev Law]] – [[Zipf-Alekseev Law]] – [[Goebl's Law]]

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== '''Fields of Application''' ==
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[[natural language processing]] – [[machine learning]] – [[probabilistic parsing]] – [[speech processing]] – [[neurolinguistics]] – [[computer assisted learning]] – [[text comprehensibility]] –
[[text to speech]] – [[analysis of writing systems]] – [[terminology]] – [[stylistics and forensic linguistics]] – [[text technology]]

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== '''Information Sources and Conferences''' ==
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Journals: [[Journal of Quantitative Linguistics]] - [[Glottometrics]]

Book series: [[book series Quantitative Linguistics|Quantitative Linguistics]] – [[bibliographical works on quantitative linguistics]] – [[Bibliographien]] – [[links]] – [[International Handbook of Quantitative Linguistics]] – [[QUALICO conference]] – [[Trier symposium on quantitative linguistics]]

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== '''Biographical Articles''' ==
</div>
[[Hans Arens]] - [[Adolf Lucas Bacmeister]] - [[Siegfried Behn (de)]] - [[Anton Semënovič Budilovič]] - [[Viktor Jakovlevič Bunjakovskij]] - [[Sergej Grigor'evič Čebanov]] - [[Nikolaj Gavrilovič Černyševskij]] - [[Jan Czekanowski]] - [[Ernst Wilhelm Förstemann]] - [[Georg von der Gabelentz]] - [[Georg Philipp Harsdörffer]] - [[Gustav Herdan]] - [[Gustav Herdan (de)]] - [[Jean Paul]] - [[Boris Isaakovič Jarcho]] - [[Karl Knauer (de)]] - [[Reinhard Köhler]] - [[Jiří Krámský]] - [[Dmitrij Nikolaevič Kudrjavskij]] - [[Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz]] - [[Wincenty Lutosławski]] - [[Andrei Andrejewitsch Markow]] - [[Helmut Meier]] - [[August Friedrich Pott]] - [[August Schleicher]] - [[Albert Thumb (de)]] - [[Bohumil Trnka]]  <div style="font-size:80%;">

== ''' Associations''' ==
</div>
[[International Quantitative Linguistics Association (IQLA)]]

[[Association for Computational Linguistics]]
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This portal is maintained by [[Reinhard Köhler]]. Please use the discussions tab or
[mailto:koehler@uni-trier.de Email]

to enter your comments, critical remarks, or suggestions. Thank you.

[[Category:En]]
[[Category:Portal|Quantitative Linguistics]]
[[Category:Quantitative Linguistics|!]]

Gustav Herdan (de)

2010-02-01T08:07:42Z

Objectivesea: moved Gustav Herdan to Gustav Herdan (de): To agree with policy that English will be default language of Glottopedia, German-language articles need to have a (de) suffix if their name is otherwise identical

Geb. 21.1.1897 in Brünn (Mähren; Mutter Anna, Vater Adolf, Kaufmann); gest. 16.11.1968 (Bournemouth). Jurist, Statistiker und Linguist.
Besuch der ersten deutschen Staatsrealschule in Brünn, Reifezeugnis 1915, Maturitätszeugnis Staatsgymnasium Brünn 1916, Studium der Rechtswissenschaft ab WS 1917/18 in Wien und Prag (deutsche Universität), dazwischen 2 Jahre Militärdienst; Promotion 1923 an der deutschen Universität Prag; zu dieser Zeit wurden von Jura-Promovenden keine Disser-tationen verfasst. Danach Tätigkeit am Landesgericht Brünn; ab 1933 Studium vor allem des Chinesischen in Berlin, London (Diplom für klassisches Chinesisch), Prag und Wien, 1937 in Wien abgeschlossen mit Promotion in Sinologie (ostasiatische Sprachen) und englischer Philologie. 1938 Emigration nach England; Studium der Mathematik und Statistik; stellt 1939-1945 seine Kenntnisse der Statistik in den Dienst der englischen Kriegswirtschaft. Arbeit als Statistiker in der Industrie. Ab 1948 „Lecturer in Statistics“ in der Faculty of Medicine der Universität Bristol.
Mitglied der American Statistical Society, Fellow der Royal Statistical Society, Mitglied der Linguistic Society of America.
Herdans große Bedeutung für die Sprachwissenschaft besteht darin, dass er wohl als erster eine Gesamtdarstellung der Quantitativen Linguistik vorgelegt hat. Ein wesentlicher Aspekt seiner Arbeit ist die Entwicklung und Überprüfung von mathematisch formulierten Sprachgesetzen („statistical laws“). Seine Auffassung hierzu kommt u.a. im folgenden Zitat zum Ausdruck: „The masses of linguistic forms...are a part of the physical universe, and as such are subject to the laws which govern mass assemblies of any kind... This is how the need for statistical linguistics arises“ (Herdan 1960a: 3).
In Anknüpfung an Saussures Dichotomie von langue und parole sowie an die Informationstheorie und Kybernetik steht er zusammen mit Pierre Guiraud und Charles Muller für den Aufschwung der Quantitativen Linguistik in den 1950er/ 1960er Jahren (Aichele 2005: 18). Dabei behandelt er eine große Vielfalt von Themen: Fragen der Identifikation anonymer Autoren, Stilometrie, Sprachwandel und -mischung, Anwendung der Informationstheorie, Type-token-Relation, Wortlängen- und Wortfrequenzverteilungen, Zusammenhang zwischen Textlänge und Vokabularumfang sowie zwischen Stilistik und Sprachtypologie. Ein weiteres Thema ist ihm das Deutsch der Nationalsozialisten (Herdan 1960a: 263ff.). In seinen Werken werden etliche Sprachgesetze vorgestellt, darunter die Zipf- bzw. Zipf-Mandelbrot-Verteilung, Poisson-Verteilung, Lognormalverteilung. Auch wenn nicht jedes Detail heute genau so gesehen wird wie von ihm, ist Herdan doch einer der Pioniere der Quantitativen Linguistik. Zu vielen dieser Theman hat er mit der Unterstützung seiner Studenten eine Fülle von Daten erarbeitet, die man auch aus dem Blickwinkel neuer theoretischer Überlegungen nutzen kann (vgl. z.B. Best & Zhu 2001: 103ff.).
Herdan studierte eher Philologie als Linguistik und haftete – wie zu seiner Zeit alle Linguisten – an den Lehren von F. de Saussure und denen des Prager Strukturalismus. Dieser Hintergrund öffnete ihm einige Tore, auf der anderen Seite hinderte er ihn, einen Schritt weiter zu gehen. 40 Jahre nach seinem Tod und in Anbetracht der Entwicklung in der Quantitativen Linguistik ist es nicht schwer, die Irrtümer zu sehen, denen er unterlag. Seine Kritiker, die ihn eher vom linguistischen Standpunkt aus rezensiert haben, kritisierten mehr seinen „nichtlinguistischen“ Blick auf Sprachphänomene und ihre Interpretationen, seltener seine Methoden. Nichtsdestoweniger brachte er eine ganze Reihe von Problemen zum Vorschein, deren konsequente Weiterführung neue Bereiche der Linguistik eröffnen könnte.
Herdan nahm den Kampf mit „qualitativen“ Linguisten betont engagiert auf und griff besonders die Vertreter der damals sich neu entwickelnden generativen Grammatik bei jeder Gelegenheit an. Diplomatie war nicht gerade seine starke Seite. In damaliger Zeit konnte er die Auseinandersetzung nicht für sich entscheiden; heute hat sich die Situation jedoch beträchtlich geändert. Es ist zu bedauern, dass er auch gegen Vertreter der Quantitativen Linguistik eine negative Einstellung hatte. Zipf und sein Prinzip der geringsten Anstrengung sowie sein Gesetz, das heutzutage in mindestens 20 wissenschaftlichen Disziplinen seinen Platz gefunden hat, lehnte er schroff ab. Heute sind Zipfs Entdeckungen die Grundlage der synergetischen Linguistik und sein Prinzip, das axiomatisch gilt, wurde in zahlreiche Spezialfälle aufgespalten.
Von Herdan kann man jedoch sehr viel lernen. Es sind nicht so sehr die Methoden und Ansätze, die er benutzte, bzw. die Interpretationen, die er ihnen gab, sondern eher die Fülle der Probleme, die er in die Diskussion brachte. Sicherlich sind manche von ihnen Pseudoprobleme oder nicht gerade adäquat gelöste Ansätze, aber man kann aus ihnen ersehen, welche Richtungen möglich sind. Er wird heute noch immer oft zitiert, im positiven Sinne (vgl. u.a. Köhler, Altmann & Piotrowski 2005; Nikitopoulos 1980). Vielleicht hat er sich in seinen linguistischen Bemühungen allzusehr auf seine eigenen linguistischen Kenntnisse verlassen und jegliche Kooperation mit Linguisten vermieden, im Gegensatz zur Medizin, wo er nur als Statistiker wirkte und mit anderen kooperierte.

==Literatur==
*Aichele, Dieter (2005). Quantitative Linguistik in Deutschland und Österreich. In: Köhler, Reinhard, Altmann, Gabriel, & Piotrowski, Rajmund G. (Hrsg.), Quantitative Linguistik - Quantitative Linguistics. Ein internationales Handbuch:. 16-23. Berlin/ N.Y.: de Gruyter.

*Best, Karl-Heinz, Altmann, Gabriel (2007). XXX. Gustav Herdan (1897-1968). Glottometrics 15, 92-96.

*Best, Karl-Heinz, & Zhu, Jinyang (2001). Wortlängenverteilungen in chinesischen Texten und Wörterbüchern. In: Best, Karl-Heinz (Hrsg.), Häufigkeitsverteilungen in Texten: 101-114. Göttingen: Peust & Gutschmidt.

*Chrétien, C. Douglas (1962/63). A New Statistical Approach to the Study of Language? Romance Philology 16, 290-301. (Review Article zu Herdan, Language as Choice and Chance, 1956).

*Grayston, K., & Herdan, G. (1959/60). The Authorship of the Pastorals in the Light of Statistical Linguistics. New Testament Studies VI, 1-15.

*Heilmann, Luigi (1969). Gustav Herdan. Lingua e Stile 4, 93-96.

*Herdan, Gustav (1937). Die Reduplikationen des Chih Ching (Diss.phil., Wien, nur 1 Ex., das lt. Mitteilung v. 14.2.07 in der Fachbereichsbibliohtek Ostasienwissenschaften der Universität Wien noch vorhanden ist.).

*Herdan, Gustav (1940). The Mathematical Analysis of Linguistic Behavior. Thesis.

*Herdan, Gustav (1941). Factorial Analysis of Recorded Speech. Thesis.
*Herdan, Gustav (1952). Heisenberg’s uncertainty relation as a case of stochastic dependence. Die Naturwissenschaften 39, 350.
*Herdan, Gustav (1953). Language in the Light of Information. Metron XVII, 89-125.
*Herdan, Gustav (1953). Language in the Light of Information II. Metron XVII, 93-122.
*Herdan, Gustav (1954). Informationstheoretische Analyse als Werkzeug der Sprach¬for-schung. Die Naturwissenschaften 41, 293-295.
*Herdan, Gustav (1955). A new derivation of Yule’s characteristic K. Zeitschrift für angewandte Mathematik und Physik/ Journal of Applied Mathematics and Physics/ Journal de Mathématiques et de Physique appliqées VI, 332-334.
*Herdan, Gustav (1956). Chaucer’s Authorship of the Equantorie of the Planets. The Use of Romance Vocabulary as Evidence. Language 32, 254-259.
*Herdan, Gustav (1956). Language as Choice and Chance. Groningen: Noordhoff.
*Herdan, Gustav (1957). The Numerical Expression of Selective Variation in the Vowel-Consonant Sequence in English and Russian. In: Pulgram, Ernst (ed.), Studies presented to Joshua Whatmough on his sixtieth birthday (S. 91-104). ‘s-Gravenhage: Mouton.
*Herdan, Gustav (1958). An Inequality Relation between Yule’s Characteristic K and Shannon’s Entropy H. Zeitschrift für angewandte Mathematik und Physik/ Journal of Applied Mathematics and Physics/ Journal de Mathématiques et de Physique appliqées IX, 69-73.
*Herdan, Gustav (1958). The mathematical relation between Greenberg’s index of linguistic diversity and Yule’s characteristic. Biometrika 45, 268-270.
*Herdan, Gustav (1958). The Relation between the Functional Burdening of Phonemes and the Frequency of Occurrence. Language and Speech 1, 8-13.
*Herdan, Gustav (1958). The relation between the dictionary distribution and the occurrence distribution of word length and its importance for the study of quantitative linguistics. Biometrika 45, 222-228.
*Herdan, Gustav (1959). The Hapax Legomenon: A Real or Apparent Phenomenon? Language and Speech 2, 26-36.
*Herdan, Gustav (1960). Linguistic Philosophy in the Light of Modern Linguistics. Language and Speech 3, 78-83.
*Herdan, Gustav (1960a). Type-Token Mathematics. A Textbook of Mathematical Linguistics. ‘s-Gravenhage: Mouton.
*Herdan, Gustav (1961). A Critical Examination of Simon’s Model of Certain Distribution Functions in Linguistics. Applied Statistics 10, 65-76.
*Herdan, Gustav (1961). Rev. zu: Pierre Guiraud, Problèmes et méthodes de la statistique linguistique. Language 37, 120-125.
*Herdan, Gustav (1961). Vocabulary statistics and Phonology: A Parallel. Language XXXVII, 247-255.
*Herdan, Gustav (1962). The Calculus of Linguistic Observations. ‘s-Gravenhage: Mouton.
*Herdan, Gustav (1962). The Patterning of Semitic Verbal Roots Subjected to Combinatory Analysis. Word XVIII, 262-268.
*Herdan, Gustav (1962). Statistics of phonemic systems. Proceedings of the Fourth International Congress of Phonetic Sciences held at the university of Helsinki, 4-9 September 1961 (S. 435-439). Ed by Antti Sovijärvi & Pentti Aalto. The Hague: Mouton.
*Herdan, Gustav (1963). Mathematical models of linguistic distribution functions. Études de Linguistique Appliquée II, 47-64.
*Herdan, Gustav (1963). A method for the quantitative analysis of language mixture. Statistical Methods in Linguistics 2, 110-123.
*Herdan, Gustav (1964). The Structuralistic Approach to Chinese Grammar and Vocabulary. Two Essays. The Hague: Mouton.
*Herdan, Gustav (1964). On communication between linguists. Linguistics 9, 71-76.
*Herdan, Gustav (1964). Mathematics of genealogical relationship beween languages. Proceedings of the 9th international Congress of Linguistics, Cambridge, Mass., August 27-31, 1962 (S. 51-60). Ed. by Horace G. Lunt. London/ The Hague/ Paris: Mouton.
*Herdan, Gustav (1964). Quantitative Linguistics. London: Butterworths. (ital.: Linguistica quantitativa. Bologna: Il Mulino 1971)
*Herdan, Gustav (1964). Quantitative linguistics or generative grammar? Linguistics 4, 56-65.
*Herdan, Gustav (1964). Reply. Archivum Linguisticum XVI, 82-84.
*Herdan, Gustav (1965, 41971). Eine Gesetzmäßigkeit der Sprachenmischung. Mit einem Exkurs über Goethes ‚West-östlichen Divan‘. Mathematik und Dichtung. Versuche zur Frage einer exakten Literaturwissenschaft: 85-106. Zusammen mit Rul Gunzenhäuser hrsg. von Helmut Kreuzer. 4. durchgesehene Auflage. München: Nymphenburger.
*Herdan, Gustav (1965). Lexicality and its statistical reflection. Language and Speech VIII, 190-196.
*Herdan, Gustav (1965). Suitable and unsuitable mathematical models in language statistics, and their consequences. Proceedings of the Fifth International Congress of Phonetic Sciences, held at the University of Münster. Ed. by Eberhard Zwirner & Wolfgang Bethge (S. 61-81). Basel: Karger.
*Herdan, Gustav (1966). The advanced theory of language as choice and chance. Berlin/ Heidelberg/ New York: Springer.
*Herdan, Gustav (1966). Chinese – a conceptual or a notational language? Linguistics 28, 59-73.
*Herdan, Gustav (1966). Haeckels biogenetisches Grundgesetz in der Sprachwissenschaft. Zeitschrift für Phonetik, Sprachwissenschaft und Kommunikationsforschung 19, 321-338.
*Herdan, Gustav (1966). La lessicalità e il suo riflesso statistico. Lingua e Stile 1, 135-142.
*Herdan, Gustav (1966). Letter to the editor. Revue Roumaine de Linguistique XI, 401-402.
*Herdan, Gustav (1966). How can quantitative methods contribute to our understanding of lan¬¬guage mixture and language borrowing? In: Statistique et analyse linguistique. Colloque de Strasbourg (20-22 avril 1964) (S. 17-39). Paris: Presses Universitaires de France.
*Herdan, Gustav (1967). Il calcolo della frequenza delle parole. Forme della parola o lem-matizzatione? Lingua e Stile 2, 47-50.
*Herdan, Gustav (1967). Chinese – A conceptual or a notational language? Monumenta Serica 26, 47-75.
*Herdan, Gustav (1967). The crisis in modern general linguistics. La Linguistique 2, 27-37.
*Herdan, Gustav (1967). L’elemento formale matematico nelle lingue naturali. Lingua e Stile 2, 277-289.
*Herdan, Gustav (1967). The jig-saw puzzle of Saussurian and quantitative linguistics. Lingua e Stile 4, 69-76.
*Herdan, Gustav (1967). Principi generali e metodi della linguistica matematica. Il Verri. Rivista di Letteratura 24, 87-99.
*Herdan, Gustav (1968). „Götzendämmerung“ at M.I.T. Zeitschrift für Phonetik, Sprachwissenschaft und Kommunikationsforschung 21, 223-231.
*(Herdan) Cherdan, Dž. (1968). Krisis sovremennogo obščego jazykoznanija. Voprosy jazy-koznanija, H. 2, 112-117.
*Herdan, Gustav (1968). Rezension zu: Charles Muller, Étude de statistique lexicale: le vocabulaire du théâtre de Pierre Corneille. Language 44, 659-664.
*Herdan, Gustav (1968). Zur Verfasserfrage in den Isländersagas. Zeitschrift für Deutsche Philologie 87, 97-99.
*Herdan, Gustav (1969). Mathematical models of language. Studium Generale 22, 191-196.
*Herdan, Gustav (1969). About some controversial results of the quantitative method in linguistics. Zeitschrift für Romanische Philologie 85, 376-384.
*Herdan, Gustav (1969). The mathematical theory of verse. Zeitschrift für Phonetik, Sprachwissenschaft und Kommunikationsforschung 22, 225-234.
*Herdan, Gustav (1969). Vokabularstruktur und Semantik. Phonetica 19, 142-155.
*Köhler, Reinhard, Altmann, Gabriel, & Piotrowski, Rajmund G. (Hrsg.), Quantitative Linguistik - Quantitative Linguistics. Ein internationales Handbuch. Berlin/ N.Y.: de Gruyter.
*Krallmann, Dieter. (1969). Necrologium: Gustav Herdan 1898-1968. Phonetica 20, 232-233.
*Krámský, Jiří (1969). Gustav Herdan – An Obituary. Philologia Pragensia 12, 175.
*Meier, Georg F. (1970). Nachruf: Gustav Herdan. Zeitschrift für Phonetik, Sprachwissenschaft und Kommunikationsforschung 23, 110-111.
*Nikitopoulos, Pantelis (1980). Sprachstatistik. In: Althaus, Hans Peter, Henne, Helmut, & Wiegand, Herbert Ernst (Hrsg.), Lexikon der germanistischen Linguistik. 2., vollständig neu bearbeitete und erweiterte Auflage. S. 792-797. Tübingen: Niemeyer 1980.
*Zasorina, L.N., & Tisenko, E.V. (1972). Statističeskaja koncepcija G. Cherdana. Naučnye Doklady Vysšej Školy - Filologičeskie nauki 15, H. 2 (68), 99-109.

Hinweis: Herdan hat allein oder mit anderen zusammen eine ganze Reihe weiterer Untersuchungen veröffentlicht, vor allem zu medizinischen Themen.

Für Unterstützung bei den Recherchen ist herzlich zu danken: Fachbereichsbibliothek Ostasienwissenschaften der Universität Wien (Maja Fuchs), Svitlana Kiyko (Czernowitz), Jürgen Udolph (Leipzig), Ludmila Uhlířová (Prag), Universitätsarchiv Wien (Johannes Seidl), Universitätsbibliothek Wien (Ingrid Ramirer), Andrew Wilson (Lancaster).

Karl-Heinz Best, Göttingen

Gabriel Altmann, Lüdenscheid

== Quelle ==

Karl-Heinz Best, Gabriel Altmann: Glottometrics 15, 2007, 92-96

[[Category:De]]
[[Category:Quantitative Linguistik]]
[[Category:BIOG]]

Gustav Herdan

2010-02-01T08:07:42Z

#REDIRECT [[Gustav Herdan (de)]]

Adverb

2010-02-01T08:00:34Z

Objectivesea: /* Link */ added "Other languages" section

'''Adverb''' refers a word which modifies a [[verb]], an [[adjective]] or another adverb.

===Comments===
In the [[syntax]], adverbs such as ''quickly'', or ''probably'', can also modify [[VP]]s, or [[sentence]]s. It has been proposed that adverbs form a distinct category, ADV, because - unlike the [[lexical categories]] - they do not project a [[phrase]] in the sense of [[X-bar-theory]]. Since adverbs never occur as a [[complement]], they are treated as [[adjunct]]s.

===Link===
[http://www2.let.uu.nl/UiL-OTS/Lexicon/zoek.pl?lemma=Adverb&lemmacode=992 Utrecht Lexicon of Linguistics]

===Other languages===
*Esperanto: [[adverbo]]
*German: [[Adverb (de)|Adverb]]
*Portuguese: [[advérbio]]

{{dc}}
[[Category:General]]
[[Category:Syntax]]

Expérient

2010-02-01T07:43:13Z

Objectivesea: added categories as requested; translated some information from English version

{{stub}}
L''''Expérient''' est un rôle spécifique [[rôle semantique|sémantique (ou thématique)]] de la personne ou les personnes dont les facultés mentales sont impliquées dans l'état psychologique dénoté par un prédicat émotif. Il dénote un participant dans une situation expérientielle qui subit une expérience.

===Exemples===
:L'objet de ''craindre'', ''aimer'', ''entendre;'' l'objet de ''faire plaisir à''

:''Jean est diverti,'' et ''Ça divertit Jean.'' (Les deux, l'expression ''Jean'' est associé au rôle d'Expérient.)

===Origine===
Proposé par Garde (1983:348) (voir Lazard 1999[2001:98]).

===Bibliographie===
*{{:Bossong 1998}}
*{{:Garde 1983}}
*{{:Lazard 1999}}

=== Lien ===
[http://www2.let.uu.nl/UiL-OTS/Lexicon/zoek.pl?lemma=Experiencer&lemmacode=797 Utrecht Lexicon of Linguistics]

===Autres langues===
*allemand [[Experiens]]
*anglais [[experiencer]]
*suédois [[upplevare]]

[[Category:Fr]]
[[Category:DICT]]
[[Category:Semantics]]
[[Category:Semantic role]]

User:Objectivesea

2010-02-01T06:56:55Z

Objectivesea: put up identification and brief description of interests

'''Erik Bjørn Pedersen''', a Canadian editor and indexer who has studied linguistics, computer science and technical writing at Simon Fraser University, College of the Rockies, Okanagan University College and North Island College, has worked in graphic design and prepress and is interested in W3C-standards-adherent web development, especially XHTML and CSS.

'''Erik Bjørn Pedersen''', éditeur et indexeur canadien qui étudiait la linguistique, l'informatique et la rédaction technique à l'Université Simon Fraser, Collège des Rocheuses, Collège universitaire d'Okanagan et Collège de Nord-Île, a travaillé en dessin graphique comme compositeur et s'intéresse à la mise au point du web qui se comporte aux normes W3C — en particulier, XHTML et CSS.

Glottopedia:Forum/Archive 01

2010-01-31T12:08:53Z

Objectivesea: /* Multilingual categories? */

<div style="border:1px solid #8888AA;background-color:#F0FFF0;padding:7px;text-align:center">
<big>'''Welcome to the Glottopedia Forum'''</big><br/><br/>
This is the place where you can ask questions about Glottopedia itself, and also about linguistic topics in general.<br/>
'''Click [http://urts120.uni-trier.de/glottopedia/index.php?title=Glottopedia:Forum&action=edit&section=new here] to add a new question. (Forum in German:[[Glottopedia:Diskussionsforum]])

[[Category:En]]
[[Category:Glottopedia]]'''
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:There is a detailed description for at least three <span style="background-color:yellow;">solutions how to do this in the [http://www.mediawiki.org/wiki/Manual:Short_URL MediaWiki manual]</span>. It should work even if you don't have a root access to the host server. So please somebody try one of the possibilities to keep the URL short '''and''' editable. --[[User:Sven Siegmund|Sven Siegmund]] 13:05, 14 July 2007 (CEST)

==External Links Keep Glottopedia URL!==
When you click on an external link in Glottopedia, the URL in the adress field of your browser remains <nowiki>http://www.glottopedia.org/</nowiki> this should not be. Try this external link to Google: http://www.google.com/ --18:14, 10 July 2007 (CEST)

==Category names==
What do LIRE and HYPO stand for? These are names of [[Special:Categories|categories]] which I can't guess. --[[User:Sven Siegmund|Sven Siegmund]] 20:43, 10 July 2007 (CEST)
:LIRE is no longer used. "HYPO" stands for [[Glottopedia:Dictionary_articles/Hypotheses_and_approaches|hypothesis and approach articles]], although we need to think more about whether we need it and how exactly we apply it. It should be considered preliminary at this point. --[[User:Haspelmath|Haspelmath]] 14:05, 12 July 2007 (CEST)

== Rename LING to RESEARCH? ==

I'd rename the ''LING'' article type to ''RESEARCH''. What do you think? --[[User:Sven Siegmund|Sven Siegmund]] 23:11, 10 July 2007 (CEST)
:My original proposal was to name these articles "linguistics articles", to which Sven objected that in a way all articles are about linguistics. "Linguistic research articles" is probably better, although not all of them are about research in the narrow sense (basically they are about linguists' activities). Anyway, I like the abbreviation "LING" for "Linguistic research" much better than "LIRE". "RESEARCH" I find too long. But ultimately it's a matter of taste, and if someone else is strongly against "linguistic reaearch/LING", I'll be happy to go along with an alternative proposal.--[[User:Haspelmath|Haspelmath]] 14:09, 12 July 2007 (CEST)

::Well, I thought if LINGUIST is not too long a category label, maybe RESEARCH would also be ok. For LING it is not immediately transparent what category it is. Anybody who wants to know what it is has to read it somewhere (where?). One thinks intuitively about "linguist", linguistics in general, but not of current research. I think this RESEARCH (or LING) category we could use for articles about current or recent projects: WALS, Autotyp, Negtyp, ... --[[User:Sven Siegmund|Sven Siegmund]] 21:59, 12 July 2007 (CEST)

== About Glottopedia ==
Currently we have the page two times: [[Glottopedia:About]] and [[Glottopedia:About_Glottopedia]]. One of them should be deleted --[[User:Sven Siegmund|Sven Siegmund]] 23:16, 10 July 2007 (CEST)

==Link Forum==
Please admins, sysops, link this forum in the navigation bar on the left. --[[User:Sven Siegmund|Sven Siegmund]] 22:19, 12 July 2007 (CEST)

==Set the system time==
The system time of the wiki-server seems to be 2 hours more than the German time. Please fix it. Everytime I sign some post, I wonder if it is really that late (-: --[[User:Sven Siegmund|Sven Siegmund]] 22:19, 12 July 2007 (CEST)

==Multilingual categories?==
I'd like to keep categories language-specific. It will get very messy if you see German, English and Russian articles about morphology in that category. We have the language splits almost everywhere, even for this forum, and all administrative pages, Guidelines, Community portal, portals ... so why to lump articles of different languages in one Category? We can handle it like the article names, there can be a category "Syntax", "Syntax (de)", ... --[[User:Sven Siegmund|Sven Siegmund]] 22:24, 12 July 2007 (CEST)

:Using only Glottopedia's default language (English) in categories was a decision we took early on (see [[Glottopedia:Categorization]], second sentence). The idea was that unlike Wikipedia, which has different wikis for each language, Glottopedia has just a single wiki and is thus much more integrated. This is because many users will be multilingual, and will be happy to use articles in multiple languages more or less simulteanously. Of course, it would be necessary to have a search mechanism that allows queries such as "find all morphology articles in German" -- such a mechanism is not standard in Mediawiki and would have to be created as an add-on. I'm not saying that I'm strongly opposed to having the categories in multiple languages as well -- this might also be a good way of organizing Glottopedia, perhaps a better one. In that case, we wouldn't even need the category type "article language", because all categories would be language-specific. I'd like to hear more contributions to this important discussion.--[[User:Haspelmath|Haspelmath]] 09:48, 13 July 2007 (CEST)

::I am perfectly confident with mulitlingual categories as long as one can easily filter them or combine them (Category:Syntax AND Category:De). The question is, how easily this can be implemented and used. If we plan to implement this, we should do it before the categories get too crowded. I see your point, since 99 % of Glottopedia users read German and English, there is no need for strict language separation. Let's give multilingual categories a try. At this time we don't have so many articles, so it is quite easy. '''But we need to update the automatic ABC-zation''' in overwiew of articles in the Category: Look at [[:Category:Syntax]] how the cyrillic characters mess up the layout (third column is longer!) and the "Č" in [[:Category:BIOG]] comes after "Z" rather than after "C". We must fix this somehow --[[User:Sven Siegmund|Sven Siegmund]] 20:45, 13 July 2007 (CEST)

==Adding new language categories==
I created an entry in (Brazilian) Portuguese (search Advérbio), as a sample. I did not see any other entry in Portuguese. There are other people working in a Glottopedia in Portuguese? How can I classify this entry as a "Article in Portuguese"? -- [[User:Magnusmartius|Magnusmartius]] 18:26, 19 October 2009 (CEST)

: Hi, you can simply ''create the Category'' [[:Category:Pt]]. --[[User:Wohlgemuth|wohlgemuth]] 09:59, 20 October 2009 (UTC)

:: I have now done just this, and have also created a [[:Category:Eo]], which contains an Esperanto translation of Magnusmartius's Portuguese-language article. For completeness, I added a link to an eventual German translation, which someone else may want to provide; it shows up in red type currently, because that article does not yet exist. — [[User:Objectivesea|Objectivesea]] 12:08, 31 January 2010 (UTC)

== Consistent orthography ==
I saw Rk's recent renaming of some articles. We should decide how to write the names of the articles. There is sometimes "Quantitative Linguistics" sometimes "quantitative linguistics". I'm not familiar with the English orthography, but I think in the heading all words except for "of" and "the" are written with an initial uppercase letter. The question is how do we do in in Glottopedia. We should decide for one default for english and other orthographical variants should redirect to the default article. --[[User:Sven Siegmund|Sven Siegmund]] 10:58, 14 July 2007 (CEST)

:I propose using "Sentence case" for article titles in English. - [[User:Francis Tyers|Francis Tyers]] 09:37, 8 October 2007 (CEST)

::I agree. Wikipedians are used to that format, and it looks more elegant than "Title Case". —[[User:Antony Green|Tonio]] ([[User talk:Antony Green|tɔk tə mi]]) 23:50, 21 October 2007 (CEST)

:::Yes, of course. I added a comment about this under [[Glottopedia:Dictionary articles/Technical terms#Spelling]]. And I moved "Quantitative Linguistics to "Quantitative linguistics" (assuming that it is a sub-field, not a theoretical approach).--[[User:Haspelmath|Haspelmath]] 08:23, 22 October 2007 (CEST)

== License: CC vs. GFDL ==
Is there any reason why the licence is CC-BY-SA and not GFDL or CC-BY-SA +GFDL? Is it to be deliberately incompatible with Wikipedia? - [[User:Francis Tyers|Francis Tyers]] 09:14, 8 October 2007 (CEST)

:No, we thought that CC-BY-SA is compatible with Wikipedia, but that it has advantages over GFDL because the latter was really designed for software, not for encyclopedic content. --[[User:Haspelmath|Haspelmath]] 09:25, 8 October 2007 (CEST)

::The GPL is designed for software, the GFDL designed for documentation, to be honest, the GFDL isn't great, but it is what Wikipedia uses, so if we want to be able to share information with them we should at least dual licence. I've put a notice on my page, but ideally all of the content should be dual-licenced. MediaWiki probably allows this to be done. The CC-BY-SA is iirc not compatible with the GFDL (or so a brief Google search suggests). - [[User:Francis Tyers|Francis Tyers]] 09:33, 8 October 2007 (CEST)

:No, Glottopedia does not want to be incompatible with Wikipedia. The CC-BY-SA license was chosen, because it is freer than GFDL. I don't know whether you have ever tried to publish something that contains GFDL material. This is only possible, if you include the GFDL license. In all other aspects CC-BY-SA and GFDL are compatible, i.e. you can always reuse CC-BY-SA material under GFDL, but not the other way round. Double licensing is possible, of course. So, if there are good arguments for it, such a solution can be taken into consideration. --[[User:Martin Haase|maha]] 00:49, 11 October 2007 (CEST)

::Well, freer is a subjective judgement, the CC-BY-SA has less restrictions than the GFPL that is certain. So CC-BY-SA content can be used under the GPL? I wasn't aware of this. Do you have any links? - [[User:Francis Tyers|Francis Tyers]] 09:28, 11 October 2007 (CEST)

:::Certainly CC-BY-SA images are allowed at Wikipedia. However, it does seem that the text license is incompatible, so we can't just cut-n-paste whole Wikipedia articles here, even with correct attribution. [[User:Antony Green|Antony Green]] 00:26, 21 October 2007 (CEST)

==Examples==
While '<nowiki><pre></pre></nowiki>' tags can be used to create fixed space examples, e.g.

<pre>
This is an example
This be+p3.sg.pres a example
`This is an example'
</pre>

It would be nice to have a plugin which rendered them nicely, like <code>gb4e</code> in LaTeX. Any thoughts or does anyone know of such an example for MediaWiki, I know there is a LaTeX maths renderer, e.g. <math>\sum i+1</math> - [[User:Francis Tyers|Francis Tyers]] 09:58, 10 October 2007 (CEST)

: Such things could be implemented later. I'll keep an eye open. --[[User:Wohlgemuth|wohlgemuth]] 00:12, 14 February 2009 (CET)

== Language Description ==
The Glottopedia is, so far as I can tell, intensively specialized toward linguistic theory. Has the community behind the Glottopedia decided against descriptive material for specific languages? The status of language classification is closely related and also seems to be omitted. I do find, in the few articles about specific languages that I have looked at, at least a mention of classification. But no way that I can discover to handle cases where classification is disputed.

For example, I recently found myself posting to the Google Group sci.lang the opinion that I rejected the concept of Afro-Asiatic and that I felt it was no more plausible than Nostratic. I may have been misguided but if some outsider read my post where would they find the issue discussed in Glottopedia?

Incidentally the speller checker for this form should be fixed to accept Glottopedia as a correctly spelled word. —David Kleinecke. And let's see if four tildes also works [[User:Dkleinecke|Dkleinecke]] 23:59, 26 October 2007 (CEST)

:Remember Glottopedia is still its infancy, so most of the things you don't find here, you're probably not finding because no one has gotten around to writing them yet, rather than because there's been an active decision made to omit them. I take the presence of a few articles on language description to indicate that such articles are welcome here (which is why I started a new one just last week: [[Irish]]). Even though Wikipedia is not geared toward a specialist audience, it's more likely to have a discussion on any controversy concerning Afro-Asiatic unity than Glottopedia is, just because of its greater age and editor base. —[[User:Antony Green|Tonio]] ([[User talk:Antony Green|tɔk tə mi]]) 07:43, 28 October 2007 (CET)

==Change in Presentation==
Because Glottopedia has just been started, I wonder if you could consider my proposal as far as its wiki structure is concerned and as it is explained below:

A Wiki format is typical of the organisation of [[lexical knowledge]] on a morphological basis (alpha sort) supported by hypertext links of various sorts to move in the text following another sort. Now the categories used in any collection of wikies tend to follow a hierarchical fashion despite the fact that human language is not composed of elements that can be arranged/sorted into hierarchies, rather, they are best described as a set of recursive elements that are easily described by using a [[BNF notation]].

Now besides lexical knowledge we have [[procedural knowledge]], which is in fact the "how to" and the know-how type of representation of knowledge. As such, it is regarded more valueable and useful than lexical knowledge which is usually acquired through rote and incidental learning as opposed to procedural knowledge, which become competences through practice and the use of [[non formal logic]]. Formal logic has taken semantics away from linguistics and has grossly simplified its mission to help design robots and recently WordNet (absolutely hopeless), and still word hierarchies that are a mistake in thinking.

For instance in a recent article in Cognitive Systems Research [[http://www.sciencedirect.com/science?_ob=ArticleURL&_udi=B6W6C-4S08K0P-1&_user=10&_coverDate=06%2F30%2F2008&_rdoc=5&_fmt=high&_orig=browse&_srch=doc-info(%23toc%236595%232008%23999909996%23689433%23FLA%23display%23Volume)&_cdi=6595&_sort=d&_docanchor=&_ct=7&_acct=C000050221&_version=1&_urlVersion=0&_userid=10&md5=a41a0cb03e09c1197edf3e3c1b809c22 Economically organized hierarchies in WordNet and the Oxford English Dictionary]]the author reveals that he is not aware of the concept of definitions and therefore he still believes that he is dealing with hierarchies.

Now core or upper ontologies in AI also reveal that the current model of semantics of a human language (the most important semantic primitives) are not properly understood or defined. This is why they cannot integrate or harmonize ontology languages.

I claim that by using objects, properties and relations only, you can solve the problem. Of course, you need to have time, space and motion, or cause and effect also defined, but that can wait. The point is that relation should be used to change the lexical character of a wiki into a more transparent format where relations are also exposed. To remind you, relations are basically verbs, they represent the ultimate connection between noun phrases or names, etc. (headings, titles and labels) and offer you a lot richer world than the Boole algebra.

If you do not see the point, look at the example of a website of [[http://www.elsevier.com/wps/find/homepage.cws_home Elsevier]] where the selection of views offers you an example of the relations that I am talking about.

I am willing to expand on the subject, should you be polite enough to ask me to.

[[User:Genezistan|Frank]] 09:45, 23 November 2008 (CET)

==Category:En — Article count/sorting order==
*Each of the '''Category:En''' subpages reports "The following 200 pages are in this category, out of 293 total." In fact it would seem that the total should be a larger number, perhaps 2160. Maybe a value which should be an automatically updated variable has been incorrectly defined as a constant. The four '''Category.De''' subpages, for example, report a count of 694, which seems to be correct.
*While biographical articles include formatting like <nowiki>[[Category:BIOG|Jakobson, Roman]]</nowiki>, sorting on the family name does not transfer to other categories to which the article might also belong. Wikipedia has a nice mechanism of adding in a tag like <nowiki>{{DEFAULTSORT:Jakobson, Roman}}</nowiki>, which automatically sorts under ''Jakobson'' for all categories. Could this feature be added to Glottopedia? — [[User:Objectivesea|Objectivesea]] 10:10, 31 January 2010 (UTC)

Adverbo

2010-01-31T11:59:41Z

Objectivesea: added boldface to examples

Tradicie, oni difinitas adverbon kiel vorto tio modifas nomon, verbon aŭ adjektivon:

:Jono ridetis '''amable.'''
:Ĉi tiu domo estas '''tre bela.'''
:Maria plorĝemis '''bedaŭrinde.'''

Iuj studoj, tamen, indikis la fakton, ke iuj termoj, kiuj tradicie oni klasifikas kiel adverboj, ne plumas ĉi tiu klasifikon, kiel ''malfeliĉe'', en la ekzemplo, sub, kiu agas kiel modifilo de tuta frazo:

:'''Malfeliĉe,''' ni ne povas lunĉi kun vi morgaŭ.

La gramatika tradicio ankaŭ emas klasifiki la adverbojn kiel la speco de "fakto", ke ili esprimas. Plej ofte, oni klasifikas ilin kiel adverboj de kvalito aŭ maniero, adverboj de kvanto aŭ intenseco, adverboj de loko kaj tempo. Iuj gramatikoj identigas aliajn klasojn, kiel adverboj de nuligo, de aserto aŭ de dubo, ktp. La τέχνη γραμματική (''Tékhnē grammatiké'') de [[Dionisio de Tracio]], por ekzemple, enlistigis 28 klasojn de adverboj (tempo, medio, kvalito, kvanto, nombro, loko, deziro, postulo, nuligo, interkonsento, malpermeso, simileco, surprizo, konjekto, ordigo, admono, agrego, komparo, pridemandado, intenseco, komunumo, emfaza neo, aserto, certeco, devo, kaj religia ekstazo).

Pli lastatempa prilaboro de la portugala lingvo de Brazilo ([[Rodolfo Ilari]] et al, 1993; [[Maria Helena de Moura Neves]], 2000) proponis revizion de la tradicia klasifiko.

===Eksteraj ligoj===
[http://www2.let.uu.nl/UiL-OTS/Lexicon/zoek.pl?lemma=Adverb&lemmacode=992 Utrecht Lexicon of Linguistics]

===Aliaj lingvoj===
*angla: [[adverb]]
*germana: [[Adverb (de)|Adverb]]
*portugala: [[advérbio]]

[[Category:Eo]]
[[Category:DICT]]
[[Category:General]]
[[Category:Syntax]]

Adverbo

2010-01-31T11:57:09Z

Objectivesea: Created a test Esperanto article as a translation from Portuguese ''Advérbio''

Tradicie, oni difinitas adverbon kiel vorto tio modifas nomon, verbon aŭ adjektivon:

:Jono ridetis amable.
:Ĉi tiu domo estas tre bela.
:Maria plorĝemis bedaŭrinde.

Iuj studoj, tamen, indikis la fakton, ke iuj termoj, kiuj tradicie oni klasifikas kiel adverboj, ne plumas ĉi tiu klasifikon, kiel '''malfeliĉe''', en la ekzemplo, sub, kiu agas kiel modifilo de tuta frazo:

:Malfeliĉe, ni ne povas lunĉi kun vi morgaŭ.

La gramatika tradicio ankaŭ emas klasifiki la adverbojn kiel la speco de "fakto", ke ili esprimas. Plej ofte, oni klasifikas ilin kiel adverboj de kvalito aŭ maniero, adverboj de kvanto aŭ intenseco, adverboj de loko kaj tempo. Iuj gramatikoj identigas aliajn klasojn, kiel adverboj de nuligo, de aserto aŭ de dubo, ktp.

La τέχνη γραμματική (''Tékhnē grammatiké'') de [[Dionisio de Tracio]], por ekzemple, enlistigis 28 klasojn de adverboj (tempo, medio, kvalito, kvanto, nombro, loko, deziro, postulo, nuligo, interkonsento, malpermeso, simileco, surprizo, konjekto, ordigo, admono, agrego, komparo, pridemandado, intenseco, komunumo, emfaza neo, aserto, certeco, devo, kaj religia ekstazo).

Pli lastatempa prilaboro de la portugala lingvo de Brazilo ([[Rodolfo Ilari]] et al, 1993; [[Maria Helena de Moura Neves]], 2000) proponis revizion de la tradicia klasifiko.

===Eksteraj ligoj===
[http://www2.let.uu.nl/UiL-OTS/Lexicon/zoek.pl?lemma=Adverb&lemmacode=992 Utrecht Lexicon of Linguistics]

===Aliaj lingvoj===
*angla: [[adverb]]
*germana: [[Adverb (de)|Adverb]]
*portugala: [[advérbio]]

[[Category:Eo]]
[[Category:DICT]]
[[Category:General]]
[[Category:Syntax]]

Advérbio

2010-01-31T11:00:16Z

Objectivesea: added link to existing English-equivalent article and to '''Pt''' category; added formatting for examples; supplied Greek title of work

Tradicionalmente, advérbio tem sido definido como a palavra que modifica um nome, um verbo ou um adjetivo:

:João '''sorriu amigavelmente'''.
:Esta casa é '''muito bonita'''.
:Maria soluçava '''muito tristemente'''.

Alguns trabalhos, no entanto, têm apontado para o fato de que há termos que são tradicionalmente classificados como advérbios, mas que não atendem a essa classificação, como ''infelizmente'', no exemplo abaixo, que funciona como modificador da sentença toda:

:'''Infelizmente''', não poderemos almoçar com você amanhã.

A tradição gramatical, ainda, costuma classificar os advérbios conforme o tipo de "circunstância" que eles expresam. As classes mais comuns apontadas nessas classificações são advérbios de qualidade ou de modo, advérbios de quantidade ou intensidade, advérbios de lugar e de tempo. Algumas gramáticas apontam outras classes, como advérbios de negação, de afirmação, de dúvida, etc. A τέχνη γραμματική (''Tékhnē grammatiké'') de [[Dionísio, o Trácio]], por exemplo, listava 28 classes diferentes de advérbios (tempo, meio, qualidade, quantidade, número, lugar, desejo, reclamação, negação, concordância, proibição, similaridade, surpresa, suposição, ordenação, exortação, agregação, comparação, interrogação, intensidade, coletividade, negação enfática, asserção, certeza, obrigação, êxtase religioso).

Alguns trabalhos mais recentes sobre o português do Brasil (Ilari et alii, 1993; Neves, 2000) têm proposto uma revisão da classificação tradicional.

===Ligações externas===
[http://www2.let.uu.nl/UiL-OTS/Lexicon/zoek.pl?lemma=Adverb&lemmacode=992 Utrecht Lexicon of Linguistics]

===Outras línguas===
*alemão [[Adverb (de)|Adverb]]
*esperanto [[adverbo]]
*inglês [[adverb]]

[[Category:Pt]]
[[Category:DICT]]
[[Category:General]]
[[Category:Syntax]]

Category:Pt

2010-01-31T10:14:09Z

Objectivesea: new lang cat

This is the category for all articles and project pages in '''Portuguese'''.
[[Category:Article languages]]

Category:Eo

2010-01-31T10:13:16Z

Objectivesea: Added new lang cat

This is the category for all articles and project pages in '''Esperanto'''.
[[Category:Article languages]]

Glottopedia:Forum/Archive 01

2010-01-31T10:10:06Z

Objectivesea: Added two comments about the Category:En subpages

<div style="border:1px solid #8888AA;background-color:#F0FFF0;padding:7px;text-align:center">
<big>'''Welcome to the Glottopedia Forum'''</big><br/><br/>
This is the place where you can ask questions about Glottopedia itself, and also about linguistic topics in general.<br/>
'''Click [http://urts120.uni-trier.de/glottopedia/index.php?title=Glottopedia:Forum&action=edit&section=new here] to add a new question. (Forum in German:[[Glottopedia:Diskussionsforum]])

[[Category:En]]
[[Category:Glottopedia]]'''
</div>

__TOC__
----
==Unicode==
Why is Glottopedia in ISO-8859-1 and not in Unicode? Wikipedia is in Unicode (UTF-8). --[[User:David Marjanović|David Marjanović]] 01:56, 28 June 2007 (CEST)
: I am sure this will be fixed very soon. Glottopedia should be in UTF-8. --[[User:Sven Siegmund|Sven Siegmund]] 23:19, 6 July 2007 (CEST)
:: Now I'm not sure whether this UTF-8 encoding will be fixed soon. Whom shall we ask to do it? Who in Trier is responsible? --[[User:Sven Siegmund|Sven Siegmund]] 23:18, 10 July 2007 (CEST)

==Edit URL==
Why is the URL of articles in Glottopedia hidden (when I enter via www.glottopedia.org)? It is really practical that one can edit the URL and get directly to some articles, categories, or templates. When I enter Glottopedia via http://urts120.uni-trier.de/glottopedia/index.php I can manipulate the URL as described. But this should be possible via www.glottopedia.org aswell. --[[User:Sven Siegmund|Sven Siegmund]] 23:19, 6 July 2007 (CEST)

:There is a detailed description for at least three <span style="background-color:yellow;">solutions how to do this in the [http://www.mediawiki.org/wiki/Manual:Short_URL MediaWiki manual]</span>. It should work even if you don't have a root access to the host server. So please somebody try one of the possibilities to keep the URL short '''and''' editable. --[[User:Sven Siegmund|Sven Siegmund]] 13:05, 14 July 2007 (CEST)

==External Links Keep Glottopedia URL!==
When you click on an external link in Glottopedia, the URL in the adress field of your browser remains <nowiki>http://www.glottopedia.org/</nowiki> this should not be. Try this external link to Google: http://www.google.com/ --18:14, 10 July 2007 (CEST)

==Category names==
What do LIRE and HYPO stand for? These are names of [[Special:Categories|categories]] which I can't guess. --[[User:Sven Siegmund|Sven Siegmund]] 20:43, 10 July 2007 (CEST)
:LIRE is no longer used. "HYPO" stands for [[Glottopedia:Dictionary_articles/Hypotheses_and_approaches|hypothesis and approach articles]], although we need to think more about whether we need it and how exactly we apply it. It should be considered preliminary at this point. --[[User:Haspelmath|Haspelmath]] 14:05, 12 July 2007 (CEST)

== Rename LING to RESEARCH? ==

I'd rename the ''LING'' article type to ''RESEARCH''. What do you think? --[[User:Sven Siegmund|Sven Siegmund]] 23:11, 10 July 2007 (CEST)
:My original proposal was to name these articles "linguistics articles", to which Sven objected that in a way all articles are about linguistics. "Linguistic research articles" is probably better, although not all of them are about research in the narrow sense (basically they are about linguists' activities). Anyway, I like the abbreviation "LING" for "Linguistic research" much better than "LIRE". "RESEARCH" I find too long. But ultimately it's a matter of taste, and if someone else is strongly against "linguistic reaearch/LING", I'll be happy to go along with an alternative proposal.--[[User:Haspelmath|Haspelmath]] 14:09, 12 July 2007 (CEST)

::Well, I thought if LINGUIST is not too long a category label, maybe RESEARCH would also be ok. For LING it is not immediately transparent what category it is. Anybody who wants to know what it is has to read it somewhere (where?). One thinks intuitively about "linguist", linguistics in general, but not of current research. I think this RESEARCH (or LING) category we could use for articles about current or recent projects: WALS, Autotyp, Negtyp, ... --[[User:Sven Siegmund|Sven Siegmund]] 21:59, 12 July 2007 (CEST)

== About Glottopedia ==
Currently we have the page two times: [[Glottopedia:About]] and [[Glottopedia:About_Glottopedia]]. One of them should be deleted --[[User:Sven Siegmund|Sven Siegmund]] 23:16, 10 July 2007 (CEST)

==Link Forum==
Please admins, sysops, link this forum in the navigation bar on the left. --[[User:Sven Siegmund|Sven Siegmund]] 22:19, 12 July 2007 (CEST)

==Set the system time==
The system time of the wiki-server seems to be 2 hours more than the German time. Please fix it. Everytime I sign some post, I wonder if it is really that late (-: --[[User:Sven Siegmund|Sven Siegmund]] 22:19, 12 July 2007 (CEST)

==Multilingual categories?==
I'd like to keep categories language-specific. It will get very messy if you see German, English and Russian articles about morphology in that category. We have the language splits almost everywhere, even for this forum, and all administrative pages, Guidelines, Community portal, portals ... so why to lump articles of different languages in one Category? We can handle it like the article names, there can be a category "Syntax", "Syntax (de)", ... --[[User:Sven Siegmund|Sven Siegmund]] 22:24, 12 July 2007 (CEST)

:Using only Glottopedia's default language (English) in categories was a decision we took early on (see [[Glottopedia:Categorization]], second sentence). The idea was that unlike Wikipedia, which has different wikis for each language, Glottopedia has just a single wiki and is thus much more integrated. This is because many users will be multilingual, and will be happy to use articles in multiple languages more or less simulteanously. Of course, it would be necessary to have a search mechanism that allows queries such as "find all morphology articles in German" -- such a mechanism is not standard in Mediawiki and would have to be created as an add-on. I'm not saying that I'm strongly opposed to having the categories in multiple languages as well -- this might also be a good way of organizing Glottopedia, perhaps a better one. In that case, we wouldn't even need the category type "article language", because all categories would be language-specific. I'd like to hear more contributions to this important discussion.--[[User:Haspelmath|Haspelmath]] 09:48, 13 July 2007 (CEST)

::I am perfectly confident with mulitlingual categories as long as one can easily filter them or combine them (Category:Syntax AND Category:De). The question is, how easily this can be implemented and used. If we plan to implement this, we should do it before the categories get too crowded. I see your point, since 99 % of Glottopedia users read German and English, there is no need for strict language separation. Let's give multilingual categories a try. At this time we don't have so many articles, so it is quite easy. '''But we need to update the automatic ABC-zation''' in overwiew of articles in the Category: Look at [[:Category:Syntax]] how the cyrillic characters mess up the layout (third column is longer!) and the "Č" in [[:Category:BIOG]] comes after "Z" rather than after "C". We must fix this somehow --[[User:Sven Siegmund|Sven Siegmund]] 20:45, 13 July 2007 (CEST)

:::I create an entry in (Brazilian) Portuguese (search Advérbio), as a sample. I did not see any other entry in Portuguese. There are other people working in a Glottopedia in Portuguese? How can I classify this entry as a "Article in Portuguese"?

:::: Hi, you can simply ''create the Category'' [[:Category:Pt]]. --[[User:Wohlgemuth|wohlgemuth]] 09:59, 20 October 2009 (UTC)

== Consistent orthography ==
I saw Rk's recent renaming of some articles. We should decide how to write the names of the articles. There is sometimes "Quantitative Linguistics" sometimes "quantitative linguistics". I'm not familiar with the English orthography, but I think in the heading all words except for "of" and "the" are written with an initial uppercase letter. The question is how do we do in in Glottopedia. We should decide for one default for english and other orthographical variants should redirect to the default article. --[[User:Sven Siegmund|Sven Siegmund]] 10:58, 14 July 2007 (CEST)

:I propose using "Sentence case" for article titles in English. - [[User:Francis Tyers|Francis Tyers]] 09:37, 8 October 2007 (CEST)

::I agree. Wikipedians are used to that format, and it looks more elegant than "Title Case". —[[User:Antony Green|Tonio]] ([[User talk:Antony Green|tɔk tə mi]]) 23:50, 21 October 2007 (CEST)

:::Yes, of course. I added a comment about this under [[Glottopedia:Dictionary articles/Technical terms#Spelling]]. And I moved "Quantitative Linguistics to "Quantitative linguistics" (assuming that it is a sub-field, not a theoretical approach).--[[User:Haspelmath|Haspelmath]] 08:23, 22 October 2007 (CEST)

== License: CC vs. GFDL ==
Is there any reason why the licence is CC-BY-SA and not GFDL or CC-BY-SA +GFDL? Is it to be deliberately incompatible with Wikipedia? - [[User:Francis Tyers|Francis Tyers]] 09:14, 8 October 2007 (CEST)

:No, we thought that CC-BY-SA is compatible with Wikipedia, but that it has advantages over GFDL because the latter was really designed for software, not for encyclopedic content. --[[User:Haspelmath|Haspelmath]] 09:25, 8 October 2007 (CEST)

::The GPL is designed for software, the GFDL designed for documentation, to be honest, the GFDL isn't great, but it is what Wikipedia uses, so if we want to be able to share information with them we should at least dual licence. I've put a notice on my page, but ideally all of the content should be dual-licenced. MediaWiki probably allows this to be done. The CC-BY-SA is iirc not compatible with the GFDL (or so a brief Google search suggests). - [[User:Francis Tyers|Francis Tyers]] 09:33, 8 October 2007 (CEST)

:No, Glottopedia does not want to be incompatible with Wikipedia. The CC-BY-SA license was chosen, because it is freer than GFDL. I don't know whether you have ever tried to publish something that contains GFDL material. This is only possible, if you include the GFDL license. In all other aspects CC-BY-SA and GFDL are compatible, i.e. you can always reuse CC-BY-SA material under GFDL, but not the other way round. Double licensing is possible, of course. So, if there are good arguments for it, such a solution can be taken into consideration. --[[User:Martin Haase|maha]] 00:49, 11 October 2007 (CEST)

::Well, freer is a subjective judgement, the CC-BY-SA has less restrictions than the GFPL that is certain. So CC-BY-SA content can be used under the GPL? I wasn't aware of this. Do you have any links? - [[User:Francis Tyers|Francis Tyers]] 09:28, 11 October 2007 (CEST)

:::Certainly CC-BY-SA images are allowed at Wikipedia. However, it does seem that the text license is incompatible, so we can't just cut-n-paste whole Wikipedia articles here, even with correct attribution. [[User:Antony Green|Antony Green]] 00:26, 21 October 2007 (CEST)

==Examples==
While '<nowiki><pre></pre></nowiki>' tags can be used to create fixed space examples, e.g.

<pre>
This is an example
This be+p3.sg.pres a example
`This is an example'
</pre>

It would be nice to have a plugin which rendered them nicely, like <code>gb4e</code> in LaTeX. Any thoughts or does anyone know of such an example for MediaWiki, I know there is a LaTeX maths renderer, e.g. <math>\sum i+1</math> - [[User:Francis Tyers|Francis Tyers]] 09:58, 10 October 2007 (CEST)

: Such things could be implemented later. I'll keep an eye open. --[[User:Wohlgemuth|wohlgemuth]] 00:12, 14 February 2009 (CET)

== Language Description ==
The Glottopedia is, so far as I can tell, intensively specialized toward linguistic theory. Has the community behind the Glottopedia decided against descriptive material for specific languages? The status of language classification is closely related and also seems to be omitted. I do find, in the few articles about specific languages that I have looked at, at least a mention of classification. But no way that I can discover to handle cases where classification is disputed.

For example, I recently found myself posting to the Google Group sci.lang the opinion that I rejected the concept of Afro-Asiatic and that I felt it was no more plausible than Nostratic. I may have been misguided but if some outsider read my post where would they find the issue discussed in Glottopedia?

Incidentally the speller checker for this form should be fixed to accept Glottopedia as a correctly spelled word. —David Kleinecke. And let's see if four tildes also works [[User:Dkleinecke|Dkleinecke]] 23:59, 26 October 2007 (CEST)

:Remember Glottopedia is still its infancy, so most of the things you don't find here, you're probably not finding because no one has gotten around to writing them yet, rather than because there's been an active decision made to omit them. I take the presence of a few articles on language description to indicate that such articles are welcome here (which is why I started a new one just last week: [[Irish]]). Even though Wikipedia is not geared toward a specialist audience, it's more likely to have a discussion on any controversy concerning Afro-Asiatic unity than Glottopedia is, just because of its greater age and editor base. —[[User:Antony Green|Tonio]] ([[User talk:Antony Green|tɔk tə mi]]) 07:43, 28 October 2007 (CET)

==Change in Presentation==
Because Glottopedia has just been started, I wonder if you could consider my proposal as far as its wiki structure is concerned and as it is explained below:

A Wiki format is typical of the organisation of [[lexical knowledge]] on a morphological basis (alpha sort) supported by hypertext links of various sorts to move in the text following another sort. Now the categories used in any collection of wikies tend to follow a hierarchical fashion despite the fact that human language is not composed of elements that can be arranged/sorted into hierarchies, rather, they are best described as a set of recursive elements that are easily described by using a [[BNF notation]].

Now besides lexical knowledge we have [[procedural knowledge]], which is in fact the "how to" and the know-how type of representation of knowledge. As such, it is regarded more valueable and useful than lexical knowledge which is usually acquired through rote and incidental learning as opposed to procedural knowledge, which become competences through practice and the use of [[non formal logic]]. Formal logic has taken semantics away from linguistics and has grossly simplified its mission to help design robots and recently WordNet (absolutely hopeless), and still word hierarchies that are a mistake in thinking.

For instance in a recent article in Cognitive Systems Research [[http://www.sciencedirect.com/science?_ob=ArticleURL&_udi=B6W6C-4S08K0P-1&_user=10&_coverDate=06%2F30%2F2008&_rdoc=5&_fmt=high&_orig=browse&_srch=doc-info(%23toc%236595%232008%23999909996%23689433%23FLA%23display%23Volume)&_cdi=6595&_sort=d&_docanchor=&_ct=7&_acct=C000050221&_version=1&_urlVersion=0&_userid=10&md5=a41a0cb03e09c1197edf3e3c1b809c22 Economically organized hierarchies in WordNet and the Oxford English Dictionary]]the author reveals that he is not aware of the concept of definitions and therefore he still believes that he is dealing with hierarchies.

Now core or upper ontologies in AI also reveal that the current model of semantics of a human language (the most important semantic primitives) are not properly understood or defined. This is why they cannot integrate or harmonize ontology languages.

I claim that by using objects, properties and relations only, you can solve the problem. Of course, you need to have time, space and motion, or cause and effect also defined, but that can wait. The point is that relation should be used to change the lexical character of a wiki into a more transparent format where relations are also exposed. To remind you, relations are basically verbs, they represent the ultimate connection between noun phrases or names, etc. (headings, titles and labels) and offer you a lot richer world than the Boole algebra.

If you do not see the point, look at the example of a website of [[http://www.elsevier.com/wps/find/homepage.cws_home Elsevier]] where the selection of views offers you an example of the relations that I am talking about.

I am willing to expand on the subject, should you be polite enough to ask me to.

[[User:Genezistan|Frank]] 09:45, 23 November 2008 (CET)

==Category:En — Article count/sorting order==
*Each of the '''Category:En''' subpages reports "The following 200 pages are in this category, out of 293 total." In fact it would seem that the total should be a larger number, perhaps 2160. Maybe a value which should be an automatically updated variable has been incorrectly defined as a constant. The four '''Category.De''' subpages, for example, report a count of 694, which seems to be correct.
*While biographical articles include formatting like <nowiki>[[Category:BIOG|Jakobson, Roman]]</nowiki>, sorting on the family name does not transfer to other categories to which the article might also belong. Wikipedia has a nice mechanism of adding in a tag like <nowiki>{{DEFAULTSORT:Jakobson, Roman}}</nowiki>, which automatically sorts under ''Jakobson'' for all categories. Could this feature be added to Glottopedia? — [[User:Objectivesea|Objectivesea]] 10:10, 31 January 2010 (UTC)

Assimilation (de)

2010-01-31T09:15:13Z

Objectivesea: /* Links */ On German articles, applying the '''DC''' template incorrectly classifies them as English-language

'''Assimilation''' bezeichnet einen Prozess, bei dem sich ein [[Segment]] an ein (benachbartes) Segment phonetisch angleicht.

=== Beispiel ===

Im Englischen wird der alveolare [[Nasalkonsonant]] des [[Präfix|Präfixes]] /in-/ zu [l] in "illegal" (totale Assimilation) und zu [m] in "input" (partielle Assimilation), wobei die Veränderung im zweiten Beispiel darin besteht, dass das [[Artikulationsorgan]] und der [[Artikulationsort]] durch den Einfluss des folgenden labialen Segments [p] von apiko-alveolar zu bilabial wechselt. Assimilation zwischen [[Vokal|Vokalen]] wird üblicherweise als [[Vokalharmonie]] bezeichnet.

=== Typen ===

Assimilationsveränderungen lassen sich wie folgt klassifizieren:
*[[partielle vs. totale Assimilation]]
*[[progressive vs. regressive Assimilation]]
*[[Kontaktassimilation vs. Fernassimilation]]

=== Andere Sprachen ===
Englisch [[Assimilation]]

== References ==

* Campbell, Lyle & Mauricio J. Mixco. 2007. A Glossary of Historical Linguistics. Salt Lake City: University of Utah Press.
* Crowley, Terry. 1997. An introduction to historical linguistics 3rd ed. Auckland: Oxford University Press.
* Kiparsky, Paul. 2003. The phonological basis of sound change. In Handbook of historical linguistics, ed. by Brian D. Joseph and Richard D. Janda, 313–342. Oxford: Basil Blackwell.
* McMahon, April M.S. 1994. Understanding language Change. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

=== Links ===

* [http://www2.let.uu.nl/UiL-OTS/Lexicon/zoek.pl?lemma=Assimilation&lemmacode=1046 Utrecht Lexicon of Linguistics]
* [http://www-uilots.let.uu.nl/~audiufon/data/klankaanpassing.html Audiodemonstration]<br />

[[Category:De]]
[[Category:DICT]]
[[Category:Diachrony]]
[[Category:Phonetics and phonology]]