Sociophonetics

Sociophonetics

Sociophonetics is a branch of linguistics using sociolinguistics and phonetics methods. It explains how language affects society. It is put forward with the aim of analyzing sociolinguistic questions, using phonetics and data as a reference. Sociophonetic was first put forward by William Labov around 1960 or 70s related to his research on the pronunciation of vowels and their relationship in changing the language and dialect that a person uses in communication. Along with the times, the use of spectrography and spectroplatography techniques made it easier for researchers to understand phonetic variations in more detail.

Identity in the context of sociology and linguistics refers to the characteristics that distinguish a person or group in society. This can include various aspects such as ethnicity, gender, social status, education level, age, and others. In the sociology of language, identity is often associated with the way a person uses language, which reflects and influences their position in society. For example, the use of certain dialects or slang can indicate membership in a particular social group or community. Identity can also develop and change over time due to social interactions and cultural influences.

Labov Principle

William Labov's principles in sociolinguistics provide a comprehensive framework for understanding the systematic nature of language variation and its interaction with social structures. Labov principle include:

1. Systematic Language Variation Language variation is not random but follows clear patterns influenced by social factors such as social class, ethnicity, gender, and social context. For instance, speech varies when talking to peers versus superiors.
2. Multidimensional Variation Variation includes differences in pronunciation, grammar, vocabulary, and language style. Speakers adjust their language registers based on social context and formality, such as using formal vocabulary in professional settings compared to casual settings at home.
3. Dynamic Language Change Language is constantly evolving due to factors like interlanguage contact, migration, and social change. Studying these changes helps understand social dynamics and individual interactions' impact on language.
4. Multiple Relatedness Language variation is influenced by interconnected social factors, including social class, ethnicity, gender, age, and social situations. For example, teenagers and adults from the same ethnic background may speak differently due to age and social experiences.

Language Variation

In linguistics, language variation refers to differences in the way language is used by individuals or groups in society. Social factors that influence language variation include age, gender and social class. Here's a more in-depth explanation of each of these factors:

Age

The language used by individuals can differ based on their age. For example:

• Children may use simpler language or use a lot of slang that is popular among them.
• Teenagers are often pioneers in language innovation, coining or adopting new words and phrases that may be unfamiliar to older generations.
• Adults tend to use more formal language in professional contexts, but they may also adopt some elements of language used by younger generations.
• Seniors may retain the use of words or phrases that are outdated or rarely used by younger generations.

Gender

Gender also affects language variation. It shows that there are differences in the way men and women communicate. For example:

• Women tend to use more polite language, showing empathy and care in their communication. They use tag questions more often (e.g. “ah, so”).
• Men tend to use more direct and assertive language. They use imperatives more often and language that is more competitive or status-based.

Social Class

Social class has a significant effect on language variation. Language can reflect a person's social status in society. For example:

• The upper class may use a more formal and complex variety of language, with an extensive vocabulary and a style of speech that reflects higher education.
• The middle class tends to use a more formal variety of language at work, but is more relaxed in social settings.
• The working class may use a more informal variety of language and may include more slang or regional dialects.

preferential variation

Sociolinguistic research has identified that there are preferential variations in speech between men and women, as well as how social factors influence language use. Here is a richer explanation of the previously summarized points.

Speaking Differences

Research shows that there are certain preferences in speech based on gender. For example:

• Language Variant Choice Women in a community are often more likely to use language variants that are considered more standard or prestigious, while men more often use non-standard forms. For example, in English, women are more likely to say “going to” than “gonna”.
• Stylistics and Registration Women tend to be more flexible in changing language style according to social context, such as using more formal language in professional situations and more informal language in social contexts.

Sociolinguistic influences

Sociolinguistic principles provide a framework for understanding this variation. One important principle is Labov's Principle I, which states that in societies with stable social stratification, men tend to use non-standard forms more often than women. This could be due to:

• Social Role and Status Nonstandard forms are often associated with masculinity and anti-authority, which are more prevalent in male social roles.
• Social Judgment Women may be more motivated to use standardized forms as a way to gain higher social status or to conform to stricter social norms.

Gender roles

Gender is not only seen as a binary category, but also as a dynamic social construction.

• Gender as a Social Construction Gender identity is influenced by factors such as culture, social environment, and interpersonal interactions. Language use by men and women reflects and shapes their gender identity.
• Variation within Communities Within a given community, gender norms can vary greatly, affecting the way language is used. For example, in some communities, women may be more influential in language innovation than men.

Research and Approach

• Essentialist vs. Dynamic Approach Early essentialist approaches saw gender as a fixed and fundamental category that directly affects language use. However, modern, more dynamic approaches recognize that gender is a complex variable that interacts with other social and cultural factors.
• Intersectionality Studies Modern research often takes into account the interaction between gender and other factors such as age, ethnicity and social class to understand richer and more contextualized language variation.

Speech production and perception

Speech production and perception are two fundamental aspects of phonetics and phonology. These involve how sounds are produced by the human speech apparatus (production) and how they are understood by the listener (perception). Here is a richer explanation of speech production and perception, and how vowels and consonants vary.

Speech Production and Perception

• Speech Production involves the physiological process in which air from the lungs is organized by the vocal cords in the larynx, and modified by the structures of the oral cavity, nose, and pharynx to produce sounds.

Articulation: The position and movement of the tongue, lips, and jaw affect the sound produced. For example, a high, forward tongue position produces vowels like /i/ (as in the word “see”), while a low, backward tongue position produces vowels like /a/ (as in the word “father”).

• Speech Perception(decoding) involves how the listener processes and understands the sounds received. It includes the ability to recognize phonemes (the smallest units of sound that distinguish meaning), intonation, and rhythm in speech.

Pattern Recognition: Listeners use knowledge of language and context to interpret sounds. For example, in English, the sound /t/ can sound different in the words “tap” (at the beginning of a word) and “butter” (between vowels), but listeners still recognize it as a variant of the phoneme /t/.

Consonant and Vowel Variations

Vowel Variations

Vowels are sounds produced with free airflow without significant resistance. Vocal variation can occur in several ways.
Variations Based on Tongue Position

• Front vs. Back Front vowels like /i/ and /e/ are produced with the tongue in the front position of the mouth, while back vowels like /u/ and /o/ are produced with the tongue in the back position.
• High vs. Low High vowels like /i/ and /u/ are produced when the tongue is close to the palate, and low vowels like /a/ are produced when the tongue is in a lower position.

Variations Based on Lip Shape

• Round vs. Unrounded Rounded vowels like /u/ and /o/ are produced with rounded lips, while unrounded vowels like /i/ and /e/ are produced with open lips.

Nasal Vowels

• Vowels can vary in natality, i.e. whether air also flows through the nose. For example, French has nasal vowels like /ɑ̃/ in the word “sans”.

Consonant Variations

Consonants are sounds produced by the obstruction or cessation of airflow at one point in the vocal tract. Consonant variation occurs in several dimensions: Variation Based on Place of Articulation:

• Bilabial: Produced with both lips, such as /p/ and /b/.
• Alveolar: Produced with the tip of the tongue near the alveolar gums, such as /t/ and /d/.
• Velar: Produced with the back of the tongue near the velum, such as /k/ and /g/.

Variations Based on Method of Articulation:

• Plosive: Produced with the cessation of airflow and then a sudden release, such as /p/ and /t/.
• Fricative: Produced with limited airflow creating friction, such as /s/ and /z/.
• Nasal: Produced with airflow through the nose, such as /m/ and /n/.

Variations Based on Voicing:

• Voiced: Consonants produced by vibration of the vocal cords, such as /b/ and /d/.
• Voiceless: Consonants produced without vocal cord vibrations, such as /p/ and /t/.

References

Baronowski, M. (2012). Sociophonetics. The Oxford Handbook of Sociolinguistics ed.
Eckert, P. (1989). The Whole Woman: Sex and Gender Differences in Variation. Language Variation and Change, 1(3), 245-267.
Fant, G. (1960). Acoustic Theory of Speech Production. Mouton.
Geeslin, K. L. (Ed.). (2022). The Routledge Handbook of Second Language Acquisition and Sociolinguistics. Routledge.
Holmes, J. (1997). Women's Talk: The Question of Sociolinguistic Universals. In Sociolinguistics: A Reader and Coursebook. Palgrave.
Johnson, K. (2011). Acoustic and Auditory Phonetics. Wiley-Blackwell.
Labov, W. (n.d.). The Intersection of Sex and Social Class in the Course of Linguistic Change. Language Variation and Change, 2(2), 205-254.
Ladefoged, P. (2005). Vowels and Consonants: An Introduction to the Sounds of Languages.
Ozerina, A. A., & Ulyana, O. A. (2023). FEATURES OF THE SOCIOCULTURAL IDENTITY OF A MODERN STUDENT. Obrazovanie i Nauka, 25(2), 164-190. 10.17853/1994-5639-2023-2-164-190