C-command - Revision history

NBlöcher: Inserted the link to the German version

2014-06-21T17:28:46Z

Inserted the link to the German version

Luo: +tree diagram

2008-04-16T14:35:10Z

+tree diagram

Haspelmath at 04:36, 16 April 2008

2008-04-16T04:36:56Z

Luo: from Utrecht Lexicon of Linguistics

2008-04-12T15:45:22Z

from Utrecht Lexicon of Linguistics

New page

In syntax, '''C-command''' is a binary relation between nodes in a tree structure which is defined as follows:

(i) Node A c-commands node B iff

a A =/= B,
b A does not [[dominate]] B and B does not dominate A, and
c every X that dominates A also dominates B.

(ii) (tree structure)
X2
/ \
A X1
/ \
B C

In (ii) A c-commands B since A =/= B (cf. (i)a), A does not dominate B, nor does B dominate A (cf. (i)b); and the node which dominates A, X2, also dominates B (cf. (i)c). X1 in (ii) is not relevant to (i)c: although it dominates B, it does not dominate A.

For the possible choices of X in (i)c several options have been proposed. The first option is to interpret X as any branching node. Under this interpretation A c-commands B iff (ia) and (ib) are met and ''the first branching node'' dominating A also dominates B. This structural relation is sometimes referred to as ''strict c-command''.

An alternative option for the possible values of X in (i)c is to count only maximal projections. Under this interpretation A is said to m-command B.

===Examples===
In (iii) V c-commands [[NP]] ''the book'', but not the [[PP]] ''in the store'': when we start from V and move upwards, the first branching node we reach is V'1. This node dominates the [[NP]] ''the book'' and it does not [[dominate]] the [[PP]] ''in the store''. By the same token the [[P]] ''in'' c-commands the [[NP]] ''the store''; it does not c-command the V'1 ''buy the book'', nor the V and the NP contained in V'1, because the first branching node dominating P does not dominate V'1.

(iii) (tree structure)
VP
|
V'2
|\
| PP
| \
| P'
| |\
V'1 | \
|\ P NP
| \ | |
| \ in the store
| \
V NP
| |
buy the book

V in (iii) m-commands both the [[NP]] ''the book'' and the [[PP]] ''in the store'' and what is contained in them. P does not m-command V, because there is a maximal projection PP which dominates P and does not dominate V, nor the [[NP]] ''the book''.

===Comments===
The minimal phrase which contains a c- or m-commanding element A is the c- or m-command domain of that element. The notion 'minimal phrase' is defined according to the interpretation of X in the definition in (i). Thus, if A m-commands B, the minimal phrase containing A is labeled XP. The m-command domain, then, is the smallest maximal projection containing A. In (iii) PP, not VP, is the m-command domain of P, since PP is the smallest maximal projection in which P appears. If A c-commands B the minimal phrase is the first branching node dominating A. Thus, V'1 in (iii) is the c-command domain of V. The c-command domain of an element must be a constituent, given that it consists of all the material dominated by one node; hence the term c(onstituent)-command. Other proposals restrict X to [[lexical categories]], [[major categories]]. The notion c-command plays a role in the definitions of [[government]], [[binding]], and [[scope]].

===Link===
[http://www2.let.uu.nl/UiL-OTS/Lexicon/zoek.pl?lemma=C-command&lemmacode=860 Utrecht Lexicon of Linguistics]

===References===
*Aoun, Y. & Sportiche, D. 1983. On the formal theory of Government. ''The Linguistic Review 2/3'', 211-236.
*{{: Chomsky 1981}}
*{{: Chomsky 1986}}
*{{: Chomsky 1986b}}
*{{: Chomsky 1993}}
*Reinhart, T. 1976. The syntactic domain of anaphora. Diss, MIT.

{{dc}}
[[Category:Syntax]]

@@ Line 7: / Line 7: @@
       c  every X that dominates A also dominates B.
-   (ii)	 (tree structure)
+  (ii)
-              X<sub>2</sub>
+          X<sub>2</sub>
-		 / \
+         / \
-	        A  X<sub>1</sub>
+        A  X<sub>1</sub>
-                   / \
+          / \
-		   B  C
+          B  C
 In (ii) A c-commands B since A =/= B (cf. (i)a), A does not dominate B, nor does B dominate A (cf. (i)b); and the node which dominates A, X2, also dominates B (cf. (i)c). X1 in (ii) is not relevant to (i)c: although it dominates B, it does not dominate A.
@@ Line 23: / Line 23: @@
 In (iii) V c-commands [[NP]] ''the book'', but not the [[PP]] ''in the store'': when we start from V and move upwards, the first branching node we reach is V'<sub>1</sub>. This node dominates the [[NP]] ''the book'' and it does not [[dominate]] the [[PP]] ''in the store''. By the same token the [[P]] ''in'' c-commands the [[NP]] ''the store''; it does not c-command the V'<sub>1</sub> ''buy the book'', nor the V and the NP contained in V'<sub>1</sub>, because the first branching node dominating P does not dominate V'<sub>1</sub>.
-  (iii)	 (tree structure)
+(iii)
-        VP
+         VP
-−
+         |
-	 V'<sub>2</sub>
+         V'<sub>2</sub>
-	 |\
+         |\
-	 | PP
+         | PP
-	 |   \
+         |   \
-	 |    P'
+         |    P'
-	 |    |\
+         |    |\
-	 V'<sub>1</sub> | \
+         V'<sub>1</sub>  | \
-	 |\   P  NP
+         |\   P  NP
-	 | \  |   |
+         | \  |   |
-	 |  \ in the store
+         |  \ in the store
-	 |   \
+         |   \
-	 V   NP
+         V   NP
-   	 |   |
+         |   |
-	buy  the book
+        buy  the book
 V in (iii) m-commands both the [[NP]] ''the book'' and the [[PP]] ''in the store'' and what is contained in them. P does not m-command V, because there is a maximal projection PP which dominates P and does not dominate V, nor the [[NP]] ''the book''.

@@ Line 57: / Line 57: @@
 *Reinhart, T. 1976. The syntactic domain of anaphora. Diss, MIT.
 {{dc}}
 [[Category:Syntax]]