Codeswitching - Revision history

Volker gast: Redirected page to Code-switching

2009-09-20T17:31:38Z

Redirected page to Code-switching

Volker gast: /* Structural models of code switching */

2009-09-20T17:24:41Z

Structural models of code switching

Volker gast: /* Types of code switching and reasons for code switching */

2009-09-20T17:15:10Z

Types of code switching and reasons for code switching

Volker gast: /* History of code switching */

2009-09-20T17:04:59Z

History of code switching

Volker gast: /* Matrix language and embedded language */

2009-09-20T17:00:45Z

Matrix language and embedded language

Volker gast: /* Comments */

2009-09-20T16:59:58Z

Comments

Volker gast: /* Matrix language and embedded language */

2009-09-20T16:56:11Z

Matrix language and embedded language

Volker gast: /* Matrix Language and Embedded Language */

2009-09-20T16:55:32Z

Matrix Language and Embedded Language

Volker gast at 16:45, 20 September 2009

2009-09-20T16:45:50Z

Volker gast at 16:44, 20 September 2009

2009-09-20T16:44:23Z

← Older revision		Revision as of 17:31, 20 September 2009
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−	~~__TOC__~~	+	#REDIRECT [[Code-switching]]
−
−	~~==Definition==~~
−	The term '''codeswitching''' (or '''code-switching''') refers to the alternation between two or more languages, dialects, or language registers in the course of discourse between people who have more than one language in common. Typically one of the two languages is dominant; the major language is often called the [[matrix language]], while the minor language is the [[embedded language]].
−
−	~~::*''(Code-switching) "occurs when a bilingual introduces a completely unassimilated word from another language into his speech."'' (Haugen 1956:40)~~
−	::*''"Codeswitching ... is the selection by bilinguals or multilinguals of forms from an embedded variety (or varieties) in utterances of a matrix variety during the same conversation"'' (Myers-Scotton 1993:3).
−
−	~~===Subtypes===~~
−
−	* [[intersentential codeswitching]]
−	* [[intrasentential codeswitching]]
−
−	~~===Examples===~~
−	* German-Spanish
−	** ''Aber du #~~sabes que eres, o sea, tú sabes que# du bist gut, zum Beispiel besser in Mathe als in Deutsch. #Eso sabe.''~~
−	** Aber du weißt, dass du bist, also, du weißt, dass du bist gut, zum Beispiel besser in Mathe als in Deutsch. Das weiß er.
−	* English-German
−	** ''Nein er kam doch erst um neun, #you know?''
−	** ''Nein er kam doch erst um neun, weißt du?''
−
−	The first example (from Edel 2007) shows, in its first sentence, a case of [[intrasentential codeswitching]], where the switch occurs between words or phrases (it may also occur within the same word). Both sentences together provide an example of [[intersentential codeswitching]], where the switch occurs between sentence boundaries. The second example illustrated a third (and rarely noted) form of codeswitching, the so called 'tag switches', where a tag phrase from the second language is embedded into the matrix language.
−
−	~~===Comments===~~
−	~~====Code-switching vs. borrowing====~~
−	The phenomenon is to be differentiated from [[borrowing]]. In general, the easiest way to find out whether a word or phrase is a borrowing in a given language is to determine whether the word is used by monolinguals of that language or not: Code-switches are only used by bilingual speakers. Borrowings, by contrast, are regularly used by monolinguals of a given language and that they have, to an extent at least, been adapted to the phonological system of the [[recipient language]]. However, as some linguists assume that the process of integration happens gradually, some forms of borrowings cannot be easily distinguished from code-switches. A more or less reliable test mentioned in the relevant literature relies on frequency (borrowings occur much more frequent than code switches).
−
−	~~====~~Code-switching ~~and code-mixing====~~
−
−	~~The terms '''code-switching''' and 'code mixing' are oftentimes used synonymously, though 'code-mixing' is often used for [[intrasentential codeswitching]] only.~~
−
−	~~==Matrix language and embedded language==~~
−	In situations of code-switching a distinction is made between the [[matrix language]] and the [[embedded language]]. The matrix language is the language that is dominantly used during a conversation and whose grammar is - in most cases - applied to the overall sentence structure. The embedded language is the one from which switches may originate. Some models of code-switching models supply tests allowing one to identify the matrix language. So far, no reliable test has however been found. Models like the one of Muysken (2000) even consider the differentiation between matrix and embedded language unnecessary.
−
−	~~==History of code switching==~~
−	Code-switching has been known since the early twentieth century, when the first recognizable observations concerning bilingual research were recorded (Ronjat 1913, and later Leopold 1939-49). However, the phenomenon was not investigated for a long time. In the entire first half of the twentieth century and in large parts of the second half, code-switching was considered something that occurred randomly, without a logical pattern behind it, as a result of imperfect second language learning.
−
−	The perspective on code switching began to change in the nineteen seventies when Blom and Grumperz (1972) published an article in which they presented a survey of their studies of a Norwegian village. Blom and Grumperz discovered that members of the village spoke two dialects of Norwegian and used them according to specific situations. In the following years, more scholars conducted research on the systematic character of code-switching. From the late seventies on, there has been a lively debate going on, producing various models predicting (constraints on) code-switching.
−
−	~~==Types of code switching and reasons for code switching==~~
−	~~One of the first categorisations of code-switching was provided by Appel and Muysken (1987). They distinguish between five reasons for why speakers code-switch:~~
−
−	* Referential function
−	* Directive function
−	* Expressive function
−	* Phatic function
−	* Metalinguistic function
−
−	Speakers will use the '''referential function''' of code-switching to compensate for shortcomings in the matrix language. This may either make up for lexical gaps in the matrix language, or help the speaker to maintaining a smooth speech flow. The '''directive''' function refers to a situation in which a speaker either wants to associate with, or dissociate themselves from other interlocutors. The '''phatic function''' signals a change in 'tone'. The '''metalinguistic function''' occurs when speakers comment on a specific feature of a language by using the other language.
−
−	Although this model covers a number of functions, it cannot really answer the question of why speakers use code switching. In their study on Ranamål and Bokmål -- the two variants spoken in the mentioned example in northern Norway -- Blom and Gumperz argue that there are mainly two functions of code switching: Situational and metaphorical code switching.
−
−	~~The question of why speakers switch codes was addressed by psychologists like Howard Giles (1973) who took an audience centred approach. Giles stated that speakers code-switch in order to either<br>~~
−	~~a.) Associate with the interlocutor<br>~~
−	~~or <br>~~
−	~~b.) Dissociate from the interlocutor.~~
−
−	The underlying assumption is that an audience will evaluate a speaker more beneficially who tries to put effort into showing his ties to an audience, while they will disapprove of those who distance themselves from the audience.
−
−	~~Finally, there are also pragmatic approaches to code-switching.~~
−
−	~~==Structural models of code switching==~~
−	~~Four mayor approaches to the structural study of code-switching canb be distinguished:~~
−
−	* Descriptive accounts (Timm 1975, Pfaff 1979)
−	* Accounts involving surface constraints and a 'third grammar' for code-switching (Poplack 1980; Sankoff and Poplack 1981'')
−	* Principle-based accounts with code-switching specific mechanisms and constraints (Belazi et al. 1994; Bentahila and Davies 1983; Di Sciullo et al. 1986; Joshi 1985; Woolford 1983'')
−	* Principle-based accounts without code-switching specific mechanisms and constraints (Mahootian 1993, 1996a, 1996b; Myers-Scotton 1993)
−
−	Descriptive accounts can be regarded as reactions to the assumption that code-switching occurs randomly and unpredictably. Timm and Pfaff (1979) were able to show that there are specific rules restricting code-switching, e.g. the constraint disallowing switches that would violate the surface order of either the matrix language or the embedded language. The 'three grammar approach' states that bilingual speakers must not only inherit one grammar for each language, but build a third, code-switching grammar as well. There is a wide range of principle-based approaches, for example Di Scullio et al.'s (1986) 'government constraint', which states that elements in a government relation have to be from the same language. Finally, there are principle-based accounts that assume no special mechanisms and that rely on general principles of sentence structure, rather than code-switching specific rules, as for example the 'head-compliment principle model'.
−
−	As mentioned earlier, each of these models has been subject to criticism. For example, some models have been claimed not to be able to predict code-switches; other models may allow for some such predictions, but have deficiencies on other parts. The only model that has not been severely criticized is that of Muysken (2000), which tries to incorporate insights gained in all previous models, with a stronger focus on sociolinguistic than on structural aspects.
−
−	~~==Origin==~~
−	~~Apparently the term was first used by [[Einar Haugen]] (e.g. Haugen 1956).~~
−
−	~~==References==~~
−	*[[Haugen, Einar]]. 1956. ''Bilingualism in the Americas: A bibliography and research guide.'' Montgomery: University of Alabama Press.
−	*[[Myers-Scotton, Carol]]. 1993. ''Duelling languages: Grammatical structure in codeswitching.'' Oxford: Clarendon Press.
−
−	~~==Other languages==~~
−	~~German [[Sprachwechsel]], [[Codewechsel]], [[Codeswitching (de)]]~~
−
−	~~{{dc}}~~
−	~~[[Category:Bilingualism~~]]

@@ Line 61: / Line 61: @@
 ==Structural models of code switching==
-There are four mayor fields focussing on the structure of code switching.
+Four mayor approaches to the structural study of code-switching canb be distinguished:
-Descriptive accounts were the answer to linguists proposing that code switching does only occur randomly and without any prediction. Timm and Pfaff were able to proof specific rules for code switches such as the constraint disallowing switches that would violate the surface word order of either matrix language or embedded language. The three grammar approach states that bilingual speaker must not only inherit one grammar for each language but a third, code switching grammar, as well. There are a range of principle-based approaches as for example Di Scullio et al.'s 'government constraint' stating that elements in a government relation have to be in the same language and none of them may be code switched. Finally there are principle-based accounts with no special mechanisms, that rely on general principles of sentence structure rather than on specific code-switching rule, as for example 'the head-compliment principle model'.
+* Descriptive accounts (Timm 1975, Pfaff 1979)
-As mentioned earlier every model has faced criticism, some models , for example, are not able to predict code switches in dissimilar languages others may serve this function very well but have deficiencies on other parts. The only model that is not affected by criticism on a larger scale is that of Muysken (''2000'') as it tries to incorporate all previous models into one coherent model, thereby focusing more on sociolinguistic aspect than on structural grammar.
+Descriptive accounts can be regarded as reactions to the assumption that code-switching occurs randomly and unpredictably. Timm and Pfaff (1979) were able to show that there are specific rules restricting code-switching, e.g. the constraint disallowing switches that would violate the surface order of either the matrix language or the embedded language. The 'three grammar approach' states that bilingual speakers must not only inherit one grammar for each language, but build a third, code-switching grammar as well. There is a wide range of principle-based approaches, for example Di Scullio et al.'s (1986) 'government constraint', which states that elements in a government relation have to be from the same language. Finally, there are principle-based accounts that assume no special mechanisms and that rely on general principles of sentence structure, rather than code-switching specific rules, as for example the 'head-compliment principle model'.
 ==Origin==

@@ Line 39: / Line 39: @@
 ==Types of code switching and reasons for code switching==
-It was, finally, assumed that there must be reason for the phenomenon of code-switching. One of the first and most canonical categorisations stems from Appel and Muysken (1987); they distinguish between five categories that present reasons for speakers to switch in code:
+One of the first categorisations of code-switching was provided by Appel and Muysken (1987). They distinguish between five reasons for why speakers code-switch:
 * Referential function
@@ Line 45: / Line 45: @@
 * Expressive function
 * Phatic function
-* Metalinguistic function'''
+* Metalinguistic function
-Speakers will use the referential function in order to compensate for lacks in knowledge in the matrix language of the conversation. This may be either due to the lack of the right words in the matrix language or due to the intention to avoid a lack of fluency in speech flow. The directive function explains a situation in which a speaker either wants to associate or dissociate with ones interlocutors. The phatic function signals a change in tone of the current speech situation. The metalinguistic function occurs when speakers comment on a specific feature of a language by using the other language. Although the model covers some functions it cannot really answer the question why speakers use code switching. In their study about Ranamål and Bokmål, the two variants spoken in the mentioned example in northern Norway, Blom and Gumperz argue that there are mainly two functions of code switching: Situational and metaphorical code switching.
+Speakers will use the '''referential function''' of code-switching to compensate for shortcomings in the matrix language. This may either make up for lexical gaps in the matrix language, or help the speaker to maintaining a smooth speech flow. The '''directive''' function refers to a situation in which a speaker either wants to associate with, or dissociate themselves from other interlocutors. The '''phatic function''' signals a change in 'tone'. The '''metalinguistic function''' occurs when speakers comment on a specific feature of a language by using the other language.
-The question for the reasons why speakers switch codes was focussed by Psychologists like Howard Giles (Giles 1973) who designed on an audience centred approach. Giles states that speakers code switch in order to either
+Although this model covers a number of functions, it cannot really answer the question of why speakers use code switching. In their study on Ranamål and Bokmål -- the two variants spoken in the mentioned example in northern Norway -- Blom and Gumperz argue that there are mainly two functions of code switching: Situational and metaphorical code switching.
-a.) Associate with the interlocutor
+The question of why speakers switch codes was addressed by psychologists like Howard Giles (1973) who took an audience centred approach. Giles stated that speakers code-switch in order to either<br>
-or
+The underlying assumption is that an audience will evaluate a speaker more beneficially who tries to put effort into showing his ties to an audience, while they will disapprove of those who distance themselves from the audience.
-The underlying assumption is that an audience will evaluate a speaker more beneficial who tries to put effort into showing his ties to an audience, while they will dislike those who clearly show their disparity with the audience. Finally there are approaches that do not focus on audiences but analyse code switching as something done out of pragmatic reasons.
+Finally, there are also pragmatic approaches to code-switching.
 ==Structural models of code switching==

@@ Line 34: / Line 34: @@
 ==History of code switching==
-Strictly speaking code switching is a phenomenon known since the early twentieth century, when the first recognizable observations concerning bilingual research were recorded (Ronjat 1913, and later Leopold 1939-49). Code switching – for decades of the nineteeth century - did not enter any recognizable attention beside the mere awareness of the phenomenon. For the entire first half of the twentieth century and large parts of the second half, code switching was considered something that occurred randomly without a logical pattern behind it, despite a lack of knowledge in one language of a bilingual speaker.
+Code-switching has been known since the early twentieth century, when the first recognizable observations concerning bilingual research were recorded (Ronjat 1913, and later Leopold 1939-49). However, the phenomenon was not investigated for a long time. In the entire first half of the twentieth century and in large parts of the second half, code-switching was considered something that occurred randomly, without a logical pattern behind it, as a result of imperfect second language learning.
-The perspective upon code switching began to change in the nineteen seventies when Blom and Grumperz (1986) published an article in which they presented a survey of their studies of a specific northern Norway village. Blom and Grumperz discovered that members of the village spoke two dialects of Norwegian, and used them according to specific situations. In the years following more scholars conducted research regarding the systematic character of code switching. From the late seventies until today there still is a lively debate going on, producing various models predicting code switching. Among the models designed, there is not a single one that could claim universal validity, though all achieve validity in some specific field.
+The perspective on code switching began to change in the nineteen seventies when Blom and Grumperz (1972) published an article in which they presented a survey of their studies of a Norwegian village. Blom and Grumperz discovered that members of the village spoke two dialects of Norwegian and used them according to specific situations. In the following years, more scholars conducted research on the systematic character of code-switching. From the late seventies on, there has been a lively debate going on, producing various models predicting (constraints on) code-switching.
 ==Types of code switching and reasons for code switching==

@@ Line 31: / Line 31: @@
 ==Matrix language and embedded language==
-In situations of codeswitching a distinction is made between the [[matrix language]] and the [[embedded language]]. The matrix language is the language that is dominantly used during a conversation and whose grammar is - in most cases - applied to the overall sentence structure. The embedded language is the one from which switches may originate. Some models of codeswitching models supply tests allowing one to identify the matrix language, no reliable test has so far been found. Models like the one of Muysken (2000) even consider the differentiation between matrix and embedded language unnecessary.
+In situations of code-switching a distinction is made between the [[matrix language]] and the [[embedded language]]. The matrix language is the language that is dominantly used during a conversation and whose grammar is - in most cases - applied to the overall sentence structure. The embedded language is the one from which switches may originate. Some models of code-switching models supply tests allowing one to identify the matrix language. So far, no reliable test has however been found. Models like the one of Muysken (2000) even consider the differentiation between matrix and embedded language unnecessary.
 ==History of code switching==

@@ Line 23: / Line 23: @@
 ===Comments===
-Codeswitching may be highly marked, depending on the interlocutors' specific social determinants such as age.
+====Code-switching vs. borrowing====
-The phenomenon is to be differentiated from [[borrowing]]. In general, the easiest way to find out whether a word or phrase is a borrowing in a given language is to determine whether the word is used by monolinguals of that language or not: Code switches are used exclusively by bilingual speakers.
+====Code-switching and code-mixing====
-The terms '''codeswitching''' and 'code mixing' are oftentimes used synonymously, though 'code mixing' is often used for [[intrasentential codeswitching]] only.
+The terms '''code-switching''' and 'code mixing' are oftentimes used synonymously, though 'code-mixing' is often used for [[intrasentential codeswitching]] only.
 ==Matrix language and embedded language==

@@ Line 29: / Line 29: @@
 The terms '''codeswitching''' and 'code mixing' are oftentimes used synonymously, though 'code mixing' is often used for [[intrasentential codeswitching]] only.
-==Matrix Language and Embedded Language==
+==Matrix language and embedded language==
-In code switching situations one distinguishes between two types of languages the matrix language and the embedded language. The matrix language is the language that is dominantly used during a conversation and the one whose grammar is - in most cases - applied to the overall sentence structure. The embedded language is the one from which switches may originate from. Some code switching models supply with functions that allow identifying the matrix language, though it seems that any formula to test which language is the matrix language lack final validity. Models like the one of Muysken (2000) even consider the differentiation into matrix and embedded language unnecessary.
+In situations of codeswitching a distinction is made between the [[matrix language]] and the [[embedded language]]. The matrix language is the language that is dominantly used during a conversation and whose grammar is - in most cases - applied to the overall sentence structure. The embedded language is the one from which switches may originate. Some models of codeswitching models supply tests allowing one to identify the matrix language, no reliable test has so far been found. Models like the one of Muysken (2000) even consider the differentiation between matrix and embedded language unnecessary.
-All forms of borrowings complicate the evaluation, since the source of a borrow is likely to have been a code switch some time ago. The constraint for a borrowing is that it has to be used by monolinguals of a given language and that it has, at least slightly, been adapted to the phonetics of the language. However, since some linguists argue that this process happens gradually some forms of borrowings cannot be easily distinguished. The only valid test literature provides is frequency, borrowings occur much more frequent than code switches.
+Code switches cannot easily be distingiushed from [[borrowing]]s. The main factor distinguishing code switches from borrowings is that the latter are regularly used by monolinguals of a given language and that they have, to an extent at least, been adapted to the phonological system of the [[recipient language]]. However, as some linguists assume that the process of integration happens gradually, some forms of borrowings cannot be easily distinguished from code switches. A more or less reliable test mentiuned in the relevant literature relies on frequency (borrowings occur much more frequent than code switches).
 ==History of code switching==

@@ Line 1: / Line 1: @@
 __TOC__
 The term '''codeswitching''' (or '''code-switching''') refers to the alternation between two or more languages, dialects, or language registers in the course of discourse between people who have more than one language in common. Typically one of the two languages is dominant; the major language is often called the [[matrix language]], while the minor language is the [[embedded language]].
@@ Line 6: / Line 7: @@
 ::*''"Codeswitching ... is the selection by bilinguals or multilinguals of forms from an embedded variety (or varieties) in utterances of a matrix variety during the same conversation"'' (Myers-Scotton 1993:3).
-==Subtypes==
+===Subtypes===
 * [[intersentential codeswitching]]
 * [[intrasentential codeswitching]]
-==Examples==
+===Examples===
 * German-Spanish
 ** ''Aber du #sabes que eres, o sea, tú sabes que# du bist gut, zum Beispiel besser in Mathe als in Deutsch. #Eso sabe.''
@@ Line 21: / Line 22: @@
 The first example (from Edel 2007) shows, in its first sentence, a case of [[intrasentential codeswitching]], where the switch occurs between words or phrases (it may also occur within the same word). Both sentences together provide an example of [[intersentential codeswitching]], where the switch occurs between sentence boundaries. The second example illustrated a third (and rarely noted) form of codeswitching, the so called 'tag switches', where a tag phrase from the second language is embedded into the matrix language.
-==Comments==
+===Comments===
 Codeswitching may be highly marked, depending on the interlocutors' specific social determinants such as age.