Hadza - Revision history

Kirk Miller: /* Phonology */

2021-01-05T08:14:40Z

Phonology

Kirk Miller: /* Name */

2021-01-05T04:11:13Z

Name

Kirk Miller: /* Location and Speakers */

2021-01-05T04:07:37Z

Location and Speakers

Kirk Miller: /* Dialects */

2021-01-05T03:48:33Z

Dialects

Kirk Miller: /* Location and Speakers */

2021-01-05T03:45:49Z

Location and Speakers

Kirk Miller: /* Phonotactics */

2021-01-05T03:44:29Z

Phonotactics

Kirk Miller: /* Phonotactics */

2021-01-05T03:43:05Z

Phonotactics

Kirk Miller: /* Consonants */

2021-01-05T03:37:51Z

Consonants

Kirk Miller: /* Phonology */

2021-01-05T03:33:40Z

Phonology

Kirk Miller: /* Orthography */

2020-10-20T22:44:16Z

Orthography

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 === Phonology ===
-Hadza syllable structure is limited to CVN in native words. There are no vowel-initial roots, unless ''h'' is analyzed as an allophone of zero. It is possible that nasal codas are found primarily in loan words and ideophones. This N surfaces as a homorganic nasal when a following consonant has a place of articulation for it to assimilate to, and as nasalization of the vowel before a glottal consonant (glottal stop and ''h''/zero) and pre-pausa. Coda N also appears allophonically before voiced nasal and glottalized nasal clicks. A moraic (syllabic?) nasal is also found word-initially in loans from Bantu and Datooga (and, due to metathesis, in a few Cushitic loans), in which case it may have a different pitch than the following vowel, or may be preceded by an epenthetic vowel; such nasals are analyzed here as NCV sequences rather than as a series of prenasalized consonants. Phonetically, initial #NCV may also occur in shortened forms when the initial hV syllable of a #hVC₂V-shaped word is elided and C₂ is a glottalized nasal click.
+Hadza syllable structure is limited to CVN in native words. There are no vowel-initial roots, unless ''h'' is analyzed as an allophone of zero. It is possible that nasal codas are found primarily in loan words and ideophones. This N surfaces as a homorganic nasal when a following consonant has a place of articulation for it to assimilate to, and as nasalization of the vowel before a glottal consonant (glottal stop and ''h''/zero) and pre-pausa. Coda N also appears allophonically before voiced nasal and glottalized nasal clicks. A moraic (syllabic?) nasal is also found word-initially in loans from Bantu and Datooga (and in a few Cushitic loans, some due to metathesis and some unexplained), in which case it may have a different pitch than the following vowel, or may be preceded by an epenthetic vowel; such nasals are analyzed here as NCV sequences rather than as a series of prenasalized consonants. Phonetically, initial #NCV may also occur in shortened forms when the initial hV syllable of a #hVC₂V-shaped word is elided and C₂ is a glottalized nasal click.
 ==== Stress and tone ====

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 "Hadza" is the most common name in the literature. ''Haza'' /ɦad͜za/ simply means 'human being'. The derivative "Hadzane" (/ɦad͜zane/ 'in the manner of the people') is sometimes encountered as the name of the language. The feminine plural ''hazabee'' /ɦad͜zabeʔe/ may be used for the people, though it is usually spelled "Hadzabe" due to devoicing of the final vowel. (The feminine is the inclusive gender in the plural.) "Hadzapi" is the masculine-plural copular form ''hazaphii'' /ɦad͜zapʰiʔi/. "Hatza" and "Hatsa" are older German spellings.
-"Tindiga" is from the Swahili name, ''watindiga'' 'people of the marsh grass', presumably named for the large spring in Mangola. The forms ''wahadza'', ''kihadza'' are found instead of ''watindiga'', ''kitindiga'' in recent Swahili publications, but the Hadza do not consider ''watindiga'' to be pejorative. "Kindiga" may be a cognate from one of the local Bantu languages. "Kangeju" (pronounced ''Kangeyu'') is an obsolete German name of unclear origin. The name "Wahi" (pronounced ''Vahi'') found for the western Hadza in Kohl-Larsen is a Sukuma name for the Hadza.
+"Tindiga" is from the Swahili name, ''watindiga'' 'people of the marsh grass' and its derivative ''kitindiga'', presumably named for the large spring in Mangola. The forms ''wahadza'', ''kihadza'' are found instead of ''watindiga'', ''kitindiga'' in recent Swahili publications, but the Hadza do not consider ''watindiga'' to be pejorative. "Kindiga" may be a cognate from one of the local Bantu languages. "Kangeju" (pronounced ''Kangeyu'') is an obsolete German name of unclear origin. The name "Wahi" (pronounced ''Vahi'') found for the western Hadza in Kohl-Larsen is a Sukuma name for the Hadza.
 === Orthography ===

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 There is a small population of Hadza to the west of the lake, in ''Dunduhina'' /duƞtuhina/<ref>This article uses the old IPA letter for a moraic nasal, ⟨ƞ⟩, which was retired from the IPA alphabet because it had no specific phonetic value. In Hadza, the moraic nasal is homorganic with a following consonant.</ref> 'Sukumaland', but their number seems to be decreasing and many only speak Sukuma and Swahili.
-There are approximately 1,000 speakers of Hadza, most now bilingual in Swahili. Other second languages include [[Isanzu]] in the south, [[Sukuma]] in the west, and to a lesser degree [[Datooga]] in the center (e.g. near the Yaeda Valley to the southeast of the lake) and [[Iraqw]] on the margins of the Iraqw highlands. The northern Hadza area, around the town of Mangola, was largely monolingual until the introduction of Standard Swahili after independence, though there are loanwords from colonial-era 'upcountry' Swahili.
+There are approximately 1,000 speakers of Hadza, most now bilingual in Swahili. Other second languages include Bantu [[Isanzu]] in the south, Bantu [[Sukuma]] in the west, and to a lesser degree Nilotic [[Datooga]] in the center (e.g. near the Yaeda Valley to the southeast of the lake) and Cushitic [[Iraqw]] on the margins of the Iraqw highlands. The northern Hadza area, around the town of Mangola, was largely monolingual until the introduction of Standard Swahili after independence, though there are loanwords from colonial-era 'upcountry' Swahili.
 As of 2005, about 40% of Hadza lived as full-time hunter-gatherers, and language transmission was robust in the areas east of the lake, but since then there have been reports of children speaking Swahili east of the lake, perhaps due to the influx of ''Dunduhinabee'' abandoning their territory in the west.

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 === Dialects ===
-There do not appear to be any dialects of Hadza, presumably due to the mobility of its speakers. There are some regional differences of vocabulary, however, and speakers note that many more Bantu loans are used in the south.
+There are no dialects of Hadza, presumably due to the mobility of its speakers. There are some regional differences of vocabulary, however, and speakers note that many more Bantu loans are used in the south. Some differences in pronunciation have been recorded from people from different areas, but it's not clear if these differences are regional accents or individual variation.
 === Name ===

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 Hadza is spoken along the entire eastern shore of alkaline Lake Eyasi, which lies at the base of the Serengeti Plateau in central Tanzania, from Mount Oldeani in the north (just south of Ngorongoro Crater) to the Isanzu agricultural areas in the south. The Hadza do not live at altitudes much above 1500 meters, as they do not build shelters that will ward off the night chill at higher elevations.
-There is a small population of Hadza to the west of the lake, in ''Dunduhina'' /duƞtuhina/<ref>This article uses the old IPA letter for a moraic nasal, ⟨ƞ⟩, which was retired because it has no specific phonetic value. In Hadza, the moraic nasal is homorganic with a following consonant.</ref> 'Sukumaland', but their number seems to be decreasing and many only speak Sukuma and Swahili.
+There is a small population of Hadza to the west of the lake, in ''Dunduhina'' /duƞtuhina/<ref>This article uses the old IPA letter for a moraic nasal, ⟨ƞ⟩, which was retired from the IPA alphabet because it had no specific phonetic value. In Hadza, the moraic nasal is homorganic with a following consonant.</ref> 'Sukumaland', but their number seems to be decreasing and many only speak Sukuma and Swahili.
 There are approximately 1,000 speakers of Hadza, most now bilingual in Swahili. Other second languages include [[Isanzu]] in the south, [[Sukuma]] in the west, and to a lesser degree [[Datooga]] in the center (e.g. near the Yaeda Valley to the southeast of the lake) and [[Iraqw]] on the margins of the Iraqw highlands. The northern Hadza area, around the town of Mangola, was largely monolingual until the introduction of Standard Swahili after independence, though there are loanwords from colonial-era 'upcountry' Swahili.

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 Clicks and ejectives may co-occur, though always in that order. When they co-occur, there appears to be some sibilant/lateral harmony, with a strong tendency for /t͜sʼ/ to occur after denti-alveolar clicks and for /c͜ʎ̥˔ʼ/ to occur after lateral clicks. (/k͜xʼ/ does not seem to be affected by the click, and is common after all places/types.)
-When an aspirated consonant occurs more than once in a word, the first instance tends to deaspirate (as in Grassmann's/Katupha's Law, though generally optional in Hadza). A coda N may block deaspiration, as in the allomorphs /peǃeǃʰe/ ~ /peƞǃʰeƞǃʰe/ 'to rush'. Repeated NC sequences may loose their nasal segment as well, as in /ƞtʰaɺaƞtʰaɺaʔabiʔi/ ~ /taɺaƞtʰaɺaʔabiʔi/ '(arrow) barbs'. It is not clear to what extent these patterns hold if the aspirated consonants are different rather than repeated phonemes.
+When an aspirated consonant occurs more than once in a word, the first instance tends to deaspirate (as in [[Grassman's Law|Grassmann's]]/[[Katupha's Law]], though generally optional in Hadza). A coda N may block deaspiration, as in the allomorphs /peǃeǃʰe/ ~ /peƞǃʰeƞǃʰe/ 'to rush'. Repeated NC sequences may loose their nasal segment as well, as in /ƞtʰaɺaƞtʰaɺaʔabiʔi/ ~ /taɺaƞtʰaɺaʔabiʔi/ '(arrow) barbs'. It is not clear to what extent these patterns hold if the aspirated consonants are different rather than repeated phonemes.
 ===Swadesh lists===

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 The palatal lateral affricates may be pronounced with an alveolar onset, e.g. [t͜ʎ̥˔], or without involving the front of the tongue, e.g. [c͜ʎ̥˔]. Speakers express no preference when hearing these articulations. The relatively uncommon fricative /ɬ/, however, is alveolar; a palatal articulation is not accepted. Given that the fricative may be pronounced as an affricate in some prosodic situations, this means that there is a three-way phonetic place contrast among laterals: [t͜ɬ] vs [t͜ʎ̥˔ ~ c͜ʎ̥˔] and [t͜ʎ̥˔ʼ ~ c͜ʎ̥˔ʼ] vs [k͜ʟ̝̊ʼ].
-/ɺ/ is typically realized as [l] post-pausa and [ɾ] elsewhere, though [ɺ] is not uncommon in either position. It tends toward [l] when it occurs as both C1 and C2, as in /ɺoɺa/ (sp. rabbit).
+/ɺ/ is typically realized as [l] post-pausa and [ɾ] elsewhere, though [ɺ] is not uncommon in either position. It tends toward [l] when it occurs as both C₁ and C₂, as in /ɺoɺa/ (sp. rabbit).
 [ɦ] and zero may be allophones. If so, and given that vowel-initial suffixes and clitics may elide a short stem-final vowel, it would be simplest to posit that the phoneme is zero and that [ɦ] is an allophone of zero, rather than that /ɦ/ is elided under some conditions. A predictive conditioning environment for the presence or absence of [ɦ] has not been discovered, but prosody may play a role; even vowel-initial suffixes and clitics may be realized with an initial [ɦ] when given contrastive prosody. Assimilation or bilingualism may be involved in the case of loanwords. For instance, an Isanzu loan for 'snake' was recorded as ''ihato'' /ʔiɦato/ at the beginning of the 20th century (and perhaps in an Isanzu-biligual area) but as ''iyato'' /ʔiato/ at the beginning of the 21st century in Mangola.

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 === Phonology ===
-Hadza syllable structure is limited to CVN in native words. There are no vowel-initial roots, unless ''h'' is analyzed as an allophone of zero. Syllable-coda N surfaces as a homorganic nasal when a following consonant has a place of articulation for it to assimilate to, and as nasalization of the vowel before a glottal consonant (glottal stop and ''h''/zero) and pre-pausa. Coda N also appears allophonically before voiced nasal and glottalized nasal clicks. A moraic (syllabic?) nasal is also found word-initially in loans from Bantu and Datooga, in which case it may have a different pitch than the following vowel, or may be preceded by an epenthetic vowel; such nasals are analyzed here as NCV sequences rather than as a series of prenasalized consonants. Phonetically, initial #NCV may also occur when the initial hV syllable of a #hVC₂V-shaped word is elided and C₂ is a glottalized nasal click.
+Hadza syllable structure is limited to CVN in native words. There are no vowel-initial roots, unless ''h'' is analyzed as an allophone of zero. It is possible that nasal codas are found primarily in loan words and ideophones. This N surfaces as a homorganic nasal when a following consonant has a place of articulation for it to assimilate to, and as nasalization of the vowel before a glottal consonant (glottal stop and ''h''/zero) and pre-pausa. Coda N also appears allophonically before voiced nasal and glottalized nasal clicks. A moraic (syllabic?) nasal is also found word-initially in loans from Bantu and Datooga (and, due to metathesis, in a few Cushitic loans), in which case it may have a different pitch than the following vowel, or may be preceded by an epenthetic vowel; such nasals are analyzed here as NCV sequences rather than as a series of prenasalized consonants. Phonetically, initial #NCV may also occur in shortened forms when the initial hV syllable of a #hVC₂V-shaped word is elided and C₂ is a glottalized nasal click.
 ==== Stress and tone ====
-Salient stress and pitch is not restricted to a particular syllable; its position may vary between elicitations of a word pronounced in isolation. There are no known minimal pairs, grammatical or lexical, for stress or tone. Minimal pairs claimed in the literature have turned out to either not be distinct or to not be minimal pairs (e.g., one may have an additional morpheme such as the habitual suffix ''-e'', which frequently reduces to vowel length). It may be that some loanwords retain their tone from their source language.
+It is not yet clear whether Hadza has phonemic tone. If it does, it is likely to have a minimal system of the kind often called [[pitch accent]]. Salient stress and pitch are not restricted to a particular syllable; their position may vary between elicitations of at least some words pronounced in isolation, but in some words pitch appears to be fixed. Heavy syllables tend to attract stress but again the pattern is not absolute. There are no known minimal pairs, grammatical or lexical, for stress or pitch. Minimal pairs claimed in the literature have turned out to either not be distinct in pronunciation, or to not be minimal pairs (e.g., one of the words may have an additional morpheme such as the habitual suffix ''-e'', which frequently reduces to vowel length and attracts stress). It may be that some loanwords retain the tone of their source language.
 ==== Vowels ====
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 Phonetic nasal vowels, which are not common except before a consonant, are here analyzed as /VN/.
-Phonetic long vowels are often sequences, as in ''kaha'' [kaː] ~ [kaɦa] 'to climb'. In some words, however, there is no allomorph with [ɦ], as in ''bôko'' [boːko] 'she' (forms a minimal pair with ''boko'' [boko] 'to be ill'). There is no known minimal set to establish long /Vː/ as distinct from a /VV/ sequence.
+Phonetic long vowels are often sequences, as in ''kaha'' [kaː] ~ [kaɦa] 'to climb'. In some words, however, there is no allomorph with [ɦ], as in ''bôko'' [boːko] 'she' (forms a minimal pair with ''boko'' [boko] 'to be ill') and ''sêta'' [seːta] 'moon'. There is no known minimal set to establish long /Vː/ as distinct from a /VV/ sequence.
 The mid vowels /e, o/ tend to rise when a high vowel, /i, u/, occurs in the following syllable, and /e, o/ may merge with /i, u/ in that position. However, such assimilation tends to be optional, even in suffixed pronouns such as ''onebii'' [ʔone̝biʔi] ~ ''unibii'' [ʔunibiʔi] 'we' (masculine, inclusive).
-/u/ is relatively uncommon except in loans or due to vowel-height assimilation, and does not occur in grammatical morphemes unless the morpheme has a second syllable with vowel /i/.
+/u/ is relatively uncommon except in loans or due to vowel-height assimilation. /u/ does not occur at all in grammatical morphemes unless the morpheme has a second syllable with vowel /i/, and so is presumably a historical *o in such cases.
 Vowels tend to devoice in pre-pausa position after a voiceless consonant. In the highly frequent pattern of word-final -V₁ʔV₁ (where the two vowels are the same, a pattern found in half of all grammatical suffixes and clitics though not frequently elsewhere), the vowel and preceding glottal stop tend to elide completely when pre-pausa, and either elide or reduce to a long vowel before a suffix/clitic or another word.
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 ! <small>Aspirated<small>
+|
-| colspan=2 style="background: silver" | ǀʰ
+| colspan=2 style="background: silver" |ᵏǀʰ
-| style="background: silver" |ǃʰ
+| style="background: silver" |ᵏǃʰ
-| style="background: LightGray" |ǁʰ
+| style="background: LightGray" |ᵏǁʰ
 | colspan=3 rowspan=4 style="background: white" |
 |-
 ! <small>Tenuis<small>
+|
-| colspan=2 style="background: silver" | ǀ
+| colspan=2 style="background: silver" |ᵏǀ
-| style="background: Gainsboro" |ǃ
+| style="background: Gainsboro" |ᵏǃ
-| style="background: Gainsboro" |ǁ
+| style="background: Gainsboro" |ᵏǁ
 |-
 ! <small>Voiced nasal<small>
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 Consonants in parentheses are thought to be loans, though the voiced obstruents at least are well-integrated and may be spreading to native roots.
-Consonants with a medium grey background may follow a coda nasal in the preceding syllable (that is, they may be C₂ in a CVNCV pattern), whereas those on the lightest grey background may not. Alveolar /ǃ/ and lateral /ǁ/ (medium light grey) are not attested in this environment. However, it is suspected these gaps may be accidental, given that only two roots are known with dental /ǀ/ as C₂ after a nasal coda and that these sequences have not yet been investigated in the field. Moreover, the one known case of aspirated lateral /ƞǁʰ/, though it was clear when elicited, needs to be confirmed with additional speakers. A word with that sequence reported in Tucker, Bryan & Woodburn could not be confirmed by Anyawire et al.
+Consonants with a medium grey background may follow a coda nasal in the preceding syllable (that is, they may be C₂ in a CVNCV pattern), whereas those on the lightest grey background may not. Alveolar /ǃ/ and lateral /ǁ/ (medium light grey) are not attested in this environment. However, it is suspected these gaps may be accidental, given that only two roots are known with dental /ǀ/ as C₂ after a nasal coda and that these sequences have not yet been investigated in the field. Moreover, the one known case of aspirated lateral /ƞǁʰ/, though its identity was clear when elicited, needs to be confirmed with additional speakers. A word with the same sequence reported in Tucker, Bryan & Woodburn could not be confirmed by Anyawire et al.
-The voice-onset time of consonants is reduced after a nasal coda: [[tenuis]] consonants may be partially or completely voiced, and the aspiration of aspirated consonants may be reduced or lost. This is true of clicks as well as of plosives and affricates, and is reflected in both orthographies. A /b/~/p/ distinction has not been found in post-nasal position despite /b/ being native.
+The voice-onset time of consonants is reduced after a nasal coda: [[tenuis]] consonants may be partially or completely voiced, and the aspiration of aspirated consonants may be reduced or lost. This is true of clicks as well as of plosives and affricates, and is reflected in both orthographies. There is only a two-way VOT distinction after a nasal coda. A /b/~/p/ distinction has not been found in post-nasal position despite /b/ being native.
-Aspiratation may only be distinct in the first several syllables of a word. Many speakers distinguish aspirated plosives in only a few words, but maintain a robust aspiration distinction in affricates and clicks. The reason for this asymmetry is unknown.
+Aspiration may only be distinct in the first several syllables of a word. Many speakers distinguish aspirated plosives in only a few words that contrast /k/ and /kʰ/, but maintain a robust aspiration distinction in affricates and clicks. The reason for this asymmetry is unknown.
-The glottalized nasal clicks surface as e.g. [ǃʔ] post-pausa and often as [ŋ͡nʔǃ] intervocalically. Accounts differ as to whether there is voiceless nasal airflow in post-pausa position.
+The glottalized nasal clicks surface as [Ʞʔ] (where ⟨Ʞ⟩ stands for any click release) post-pausa and often as [ŋ͡nʔꞰ] intervocalically. Accounts differ as to whether there is voiceless nasal airflow preceding the click in post-pausa position.
-Aspirated clicks may have a delayed and clearly audible posterior release, e.g. [ǃʰ] ~ [ǃkʰ]. The audible release has the same post-velar articulation as the k-series of plosives.
+Aspirated clicks may have a delayed and clearly audible posterior release, e.g. [Ʞʰ] ~ [Ʞkʰ]. The audible release has the same post-velar articulation as the ''k''-series of plosives.
-The alveolar clicks tend to be weakly articulated, though, so far as is known, not slapped as has been reported from Sandawe and evidently erroneously reported for Hadza. When intervocalic, nasal alveolar /ⁿǃ/ may surface as, or nearly as, a doubly articulated pulmonic nasal [ŋ͡n]. The lateral clicks, on the other hand, are typically quite salient, and such phonetic reduction has not be noted.
+The alveolar clicks sound rather palatal with some speakers, and tend to be weakly articulated, though, so far as is known, not slapped as they can be in Sandawe. (Reports of slapped [ǃ¡] clicks in Hadza by a UCLA team in the 1990s could not be confirmed with the UCLA archives, and it would appear that weak/flapped alveolar clicks were erroneously identified with slapped Sandawe clicks that the team had recorded a few weeks earlier.) When intervocalic, nasal alveolar /ⁿǃ/ may surface as, or nearly as, a doubly articulated pulmonic nasal [ŋ͡n]. The lateral clicks, on the other hand, are typically quite salient, and such phonetic reduction has not be noted. They appear to have the same post-alveolar to palatal place of articulation as the lateral affricates. The 'dental' (denti-alveolar) clicks are unremarkable, but are less common than the others.
-Among the ejectives, /pʼ/ is uncommon. Most of the others vary between affricate and fricative realizations. Fricative allophens [sʼ, ʃʼ, xʼ, xʷʼ] have been noted for /t͜sʼ, t͜ʃʼ, k͜xʼ, k͜xʷʼ/. Velar /k͜xʼ/ and /k͜xʷʼ/ also have plosive allophones, [kʼ, kʷʼ], and at least /k͜xʼ/ has a lateral allophone [k͜ʟ̝̊ʼ]. Ejective /t͜sʼ/ may correspond to both the alveolar plosive and affricate (/t/ and /t͜s/) series of pulmonic consonants.
+Among the ejectives, /pʼ/ is uncommon and may be ideophonic. Most other ejectives vary between affricate and fricative realizations. Fricative allophens [sʼ, ʃʼ, xʼ, xʷʼ] have been noted for /t͜sʼ, t͜ʃʼ, k͜xʼ, k͜xʷʼ/. Velar /k͜xʼ/ and /k͜xʷʼ/ also have plosive allophones, [kʼ, kʷʼ], and /k͜xʼ/ has a lateral allophone [k͜ʟ̝̊ʼ]. Ejective /t͜sʼ/ may correspond phonologically to both the plosive and affricate (/t/ and /t͜s/) alveolar series of pulmonic consonants.
-The palatal lateral affricates may be pronounced with an alveolar onset, e.g. [t͜ʎ̥˔], or without involving the front of the tongue, e.g. [c͜ʎ̥˔]. Speakers express no preference when hearing these articulations. The fricative /ɬ/, however, is alveolar; a palatal articulation is not accepted. Given that the fricative may be pronounced as an affricate in some prosodic situations, this means that there is a three-way phonetic place contrast among laterals: [t͜ɬ] vs [t͜ʎ̥˔ ~ c͜ʎ̥˔] and [t͜ʎ̥˔ʼ ~ c͜ʎ̥˔ʼ] vs [k͜ʟ̝̊ʼ].
+The palatal lateral affricates may be pronounced with an alveolar onset, e.g. [t͜ʎ̥˔], or without involving the front of the tongue, e.g. [c͜ʎ̥˔]. Speakers express no preference when hearing these articulations. The relatively uncommon fricative /ɬ/, however, is alveolar; a palatal articulation is not accepted. Given that the fricative may be pronounced as an affricate in some prosodic situations, this means that there is a three-way phonetic place contrast among laterals: [t͜ɬ] vs [t͜ʎ̥˔ ~ c͜ʎ̥˔] and [t͜ʎ̥˔ʼ ~ c͜ʎ̥˔ʼ] vs [k͜ʟ̝̊ʼ].
 /ɺ/ is typically realized as [l] post-pausa and [ɾ] elsewhere, though [ɺ] is not uncommon in either position. It tends toward [l] when it occurs as both C1 and C2, as in /ɺoɺa/ (sp. rabbit).
-[ɦ] and zero may be allophones. If so, and given that vowel-initial suffixes and clitics may elide a stem-final vowel, it would be simplest to posit that the phoneme is zero and that [ɦ] an allophone of zero, rather than that /ɦ/ is elided under some conditions. A predictive conditioning environment for the presence or absence of [ɦ] has not been discovered, but prosody may play a role; even vowel-initial suffixes and clitics may be realized with an initial [ɦ] when given contrastive prosody. Assimilation or bilingualism may be involved in the case of loanwords. For instance, an Isanzu loan for 'snake' was recorded as ''ihato'' /ʔiɦato/ at the beginning of the 20th century (and perhaps in an Isanzu-biligual area) but as ''iyato'' /ʔiato/ at the beginning of the 21st century in Mangola.
+[ɦ] and zero may be allophones. If so, and given that vowel-initial suffixes and clitics may elide a short stem-final vowel, it would be simplest to posit that the phoneme is zero and that [ɦ] is an allophone of zero, rather than that /ɦ/ is elided under some conditions. A predictive conditioning environment for the presence or absence of [ɦ] has not been discovered, but prosody may play a role; even vowel-initial suffixes and clitics may be realized with an initial [ɦ] when given contrastive prosody. Assimilation or bilingualism may be involved in the case of loanwords. For instance, an Isanzu loan for 'snake' was recorded as ''ihato'' /ʔiɦato/ at the beginning of the 20th century (and perhaps in an Isanzu-biligual area) but as ''iyato'' /ʔiato/ at the beginning of the 21st century in Mangola.
-The glides /j/ and /w/ are not distinctive next to high front /i/ and back /u/, respectively, and rarely (or uncertainly) distinctive next to mid front /e/ and back /o/. It is possible that medial ''y'' and ''w'' are phonemically /i/ and /u/ and that initial ''y'' and ''w'' are /ʔi/ and /ʔu/. When they occur word-initially, purported /jV, wV/ often appear as [ʔijV] and [ʔuwV]. This is true even of a ubiquitous sequential auxiliary (''yamo'' [jamo] ~ ''iamo'' [ʔiamo] in the 3msg posterior (past?) tense). /j/ does however occur in two object suffixes. In the anthropological and linguistic literature, glides are often written between unlike vowels. For example, the 3msg non-past copula clitic ''-ha'' /ɦa/ is often transcribed as ''ya'' after a front vowel and as ''wa'' after a back vowel.
+The glides /j/ and /w/ are not distinctive next to high front /i/ and back /u/, respectively, and rarely (or uncertainly) distinctive next to mid front /e/ and back /o/. It is possible that medial ''y'' and ''w'' are phonemically /i/ and /u/ and that initial ''y'' and ''w'' are /ʔi/ and /ʔu/. When they occur word-initially, purported /jV, wV/ often appear as [ʔi(j)V] and [ʔu(w)V]. This is true even of a ubiquitous sequential auxiliary (''yamo'' [jamo] ~ ''iamo'' [ʔiamo] in the 3msg posterior (past?) tense). [j] does occur in two object suffixes, and it is not clear if these can be explained away as /i/. In the anthropological and linguistic literature, glides ''y'' and ''w'' are often written between unlike vowels. For example, the 3msg non-past copula clitic ''-ha'' /ɦa/ is often transcribed as ''ya'' after a front vowel and as ''wa'' after a back vowel. (The copula sometimes contains a very clear [ɦ], and pre-pausa even [h] due to final devoicing, but often the /ɦ/ is realized as transitional murmur or possibly elided altogether.)
 ===== Marginal consonants =====

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 Hadza does not have a written tradition. Two orthographies have seen recent use: the phonetic transcription of Tucker, Bryan & Woodburn (1977), used with some modification by Woodburn and other anthropologists, and the practical orthography of Anyawire et al. (2013). As it is based on the IPA, the Woodburn transcription is more accessible to linguists, while the Anyawire orthography is closer to Sandawe and other written languages of Tanzania. There is evidently some political controversy over the choice of orthography, with Hadza reporting they have been told that if they use the Anyawire orthography they will loose their land. There are two motivations for the Anyawire orthography: the perception that the IPA click letters of the Woodburn transcription portray the Hadza language as bizarre, when the Hadza people already have difficulties with being marginalized and a perception that they are not proper human beings, and the practical issue that the ubiquitous apostrophe of the Woodburn transcription makes it impractical for extended use. The apostrophes are generally omitted by those Hadza who have learned the Woodburn system, with the resulting texts often being unintelligible even to their authors; when the apostrophes are written, they greatly slow down the pace of writing. In the Anyawire orthography, doubled consonants are used for glottalized/ejective consonants and doubled vowels for glottal stop, with the apostrophe only being used for the Swahili convention of ⟨ngʼ⟩ for borrowed /ŋ/.
-The Anyawire orthography is used alongside the IPA in this article for accessibility with the Anyawire dictionary. For clarity, an apostrophe will be retained in this article for glottal stop between unlike vowels, e.g. ⟨ae⟩ /ae/ vs ⟨aʼe⟩ /aʔe/. In practice, the Hadza are more likely to write an epenthetic glide between vowels in hiatus, for e.g. ⟨aye⟩ /ae/ vs ⟨ae⟩ /aʔe/.
+The Anyawire orthography is used alongside the IPA in this article for accessibility with the Anyawire dictionary. For clarity, an apostrophe will be retained in this article for glottal stop between unlike vowels, e.g. ⟨ae⟩ /ae/ vs ⟨aʼe⟩ /aʔe/. In practice, the Hadza are more likely to write an epenthetic glide between vowels in hiatus, e.g. ⟨aye⟩ for /ae/ vs ⟨ae⟩ for /aʔe/.
 === Phonology ===