Linguipedia: New page: '''Manner predication''' is a type of secondary predication which ascribes a property to an event. The expression used for manner predication is called Manner expression. === Exam...

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New page: '''Manner predication''' is a type of secondary predication which ascribes a property to an event. The expression used for manner predication is called Manner expression. === Exam...

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'''Manner predication''' is a type of [[secondary predication]] which ascribes a property to an event. The expression used for manner predication is called [[Manner expression]].

=== Examples ===

English (Germanic, Indo-European):

{|
|-
| (1) || Carl walked '''''slowly'''''.
|-
| || Olga smiled '''''sweetly'''''.
|-
| || Wycliffe worked '''''efficiently'''''.
|-
|}

=== Coding strategies ===

Languages of the world employ various strategies to predicate manner to an event. It seems that most languages have more than one strategy. Below are examples of coding manner predication which are presented in more detail in Loeb-Diehl 2005.

==== Coordinate clause constructions ====
In this strategy, manner and event are coded each in a separate clause of the same rank.

===== Coordinate clauses with same subject =====

Here the verbs of the coordinated clauses refer to the same referent.

Muna (Austronesian, West-Malayan) (Van De Berg 1989:181)

{|
|-
| (2) || ''ne-rimba'' || ''no-tende''
|-
| || 3s-be.fast || 3s-run
|-
| || colspan="2"| He runs fast. (lit. He<sub>1</sub> is fast, he<sub>1</sub> runs.)
|-
|}

===== Coordinate clauses with different subjects =====

This strategy is similar to (2), but the verb in the ''manner-clause'' shows default agreement rather than agreement with the argument of the verb in the ''event-clause''.

Ambrym (Austronesian, East-Oceanic) (Paton 1971:77)

{|
|-
| (3) || ''om'' || ''geh'' || ''mə'' || ''faiah''
|-
| || 2s.PRES || work || 3s.PRES || be.strong
|-
| || colspan="4"| You work strongly. (lit. You work, it is strong.)
|-
|}

==== Non-finite clause constructions ====

Manner is coded as a less finite verb form (subordinated).

===== Non-finite clauses with same subject =====

In this strategy, the subject of the non-finite form is the same as the subject of the main clause, which is shown by agreement (e.g. in person, number, gender). Such Forms are traditionally called [[participles]] or [[relative clauses]].

Abkhaz (Caucasian, Nort-West) (Hewitt 1979:240)

{|
|-
| (4) || ''d-las-nə'' || ''də-cè-ytˀ'' || ''a-pħ°əs''
|-
| || 3sf-quick-PTCP.PAST.ABS || 3sf-go-FIN || DEF-woman
|-
| || colspan="3"| The woman goes quickly. (lit. She, who is quick, goes.)
|-
|}

Sanuma (Yanomami) (Borgman 1990:34)

{|
|-
| (5) || ''opi-i'' || ''a'' || ''kali-palo-ma''
|-
| || be.slow-REL || he || work-REPET-COMPLET
|-
| || colspan="3"| He worked slowly. (lit. He, who is slow, worked.)
|-
|}

===== Non-finite clauses with different subject =====

The non-finite clause is not ''explicitely'' referring to the subject of the main clause or is understood to have different subject. The non-finite verb form is referred to as converb (beside other terms like gerund, adverbial participle, verbal adverb, …).

Turkana (Nilo-Saharan, East-Sudanic) (Dimmendaal 1982:379)

{|
|-
| (6) || ''è-pès-e-tè'' || ''nɪ-a-ron-o-nị''
|-
| || 3-be.quick-A-PL || REL.NEUT-be.bad-SG-REL.CLAUSE
|-
| || colspan="2"| They kicked him badly. (lit. They kicked him, which is bad.)
|-
|}

Abkhaz (Caucasian, Nort-West) (Hewitt 1979:240)

{|
|-
| (7) || ''ye-las-nə'' || ''də-cè-ytˀ'' || ''a-pħ°əs''
|-
| || 3sn-quick-PTCP.PAST.ABS || 3sf-go-FIN || DEF-woman
|-
| || colspan="3"| The woman goes quickly. (lit. She goes, which is quick.)
|-
|}

===== Non-finite clauses with copula =====

In few languages we find participial clauses where the manner coding item itself is ''not verbal'' and a copula ‘to do’ or ‘to be’ carries the participial marking.

Malayalam (Dravidian) (Asher & Kumari 1997:112)

{|
|-
| (8) || ''aval'' || ''bhamgiy=aayi'' || ''prasamgiccu''
|-
| || she || beauty=COP.PTCP || speak-PAST
|-
| || colspan="3"| She spoke beautifully. (lit. She spoke being beautiful.)
|-
|}

Nubian (Nilo-Saharan, East-Sudanic) (Kauczor 1920:285)

{|
|-
| (9) || ''kē=nd-i'' || ''akra''
|-
| || good=COP-PTCP || rest.PRES.2s
|-
| || colspan="2"| Did you rest well (lit. Did you rest being well?)
|-
|}

==== Adjective-like constructions ====
Here the manner item is not morphologically a non-verbal, but more like an adjective.

===== Agreeing adjective =====
We find languages where the manner coding adjective agrees with the subject, like [[depictive construction]] or an [[apposition]], i.e. as a property of a participant of an event.

Gooniyandi (Australian, Bunaban) (McGregor 1990:345)

{|
|-
| (10) || a. || ''wangmadda'' || ''wardji''
|-
| || || mad.ABS || he.went
|-
| || || colspan="2"| He walked madly (lit. He walked mad.)
|-
|-
| || b. || ''gardlooni'' || ''wangamadda-ngga''
|-
| || || I.hit.him || mad-ERG
|-
| || || colspan="2"| I hit him crazily.
|-
|}

Latin (Italic, Indo-European). (Vroom 1938:74)

{|
|-
| (11) || ''mendicus'' || ''a'' || ''me'' || ''tristis'' || ''stipem'' || ''petivit''
|-
| || beggar.NOM.masc.sg || from || me || sad.NOM.masc.sg || gift.ACC || ask.PERF.3sg
|-
| || colspan="6" | The beggar asked me sadly for a gift.
|-
|}

Hindi (Indic, Indo-European). (McGregor 1977:33)

{|
|-
| (12) || ''vah'' || ''sīdhī'' || ''cali,'' || ''phir'' || ''dāhine''
|-
| || she || straight.FEM || went || then || to.the.right
|-
| || colspan="5" | She went straight ahead, then to the right.
|-
|}

===== Non-agreeing adjective =====
In this strategy the manner coding adjective has default agreement or no agreement at all. In Bulgarian it is invariably marked for neuter gender

Bulgarian (Indo-European, Slavonic) (Scatton 1984:345)

{|
|-
| (13) || ''tja'' || ''pée'' || ''xubav-o''
|-
| || she || sing.PRES || nice-NEUT
|-
| || colspan="3" | She sings nicely.
|-
|}

German (Indo-European, West-Germanic)

{|
|-
| (14) || ''Sie'' || ''arbeiten'' || ''schnell''
|-
| || They || work.PRES.3PL || fast
|-
| || colspan="3" | They work fast.
|-
|}

==== Similative construction ====
'''Similative construction''' is a manner predication based on [[comparison]]. Examples:

Susan sang '''''like a nightingale'''''.

Susan sang '''''as if she was on fire'''''.

=== See also ===
* [[Depictive construction]]
* [[Resultative secondary predication]]
* [[Secondary predication]]

=== References ===
*Asher, R. E. & Kumari, T. C. 1997. ''Malayalam''. Routledge Descriptive Grammars. London: Routledge.
*Borgman, Donald M. 1990. Sanuma. In: Desmond C. Derbyshire & Geoffrey K. Pullum (eds.) ''Handbook of Amazonian Languages'', Vol. 2, 15–248. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter.
*Dimmendaal, Gerrit Jan. 1983. The Turkana Language (Publication in the African Languages and Linguistics, 2). Dodrecht: Foris.
*Hewitt, B. George. 1979. ''Abkhaz''. (Linguia descriptive Studies, 2). Amsterdam.
*Kauczor, P. D. 1920. ''Die Bergnubische Sprache: Dialekt von Gebel-Delen''. Vienna: Akademie der Wissenschaften.
*Loeb-Diehl, Flora. 2005. ''The Typology of Manner Expressions''. Diss. Ponsen & Looijen.
*Van De Berg, René. 1989. ''A Grammar of the Muna Language''. Ph.D. Dissertation, Leyden University.
*Paton, W. F. 1971. ''Ambrym (Lonwolwol) Grammar''. Pacific Linguistics, B 19.

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[[Category:Secondary predication]]

Manner predication - Revision history

Linguipedia: New page: '''Manner predication''' is a type of secondary predication which ascribes a property to an event. The expression used for manner predication is called Manner expression. === Exam...